Membrane electrode assemblies

ABSTRACT

Membrane electrode assemblies are described that include an ion conductive membrane a catalyst adjacent to the major surfaces of the ion conductive membrane and a porous particle filled polymer membrane adjacent to the ion conductive membrane. The catalyst can be disposed on the major surfaces of the ion conductive membrane. Preferably, the catalyst is disposed in nanostructures. The polymer film serving as the electrode backing layer preferably is processed by heating the particle loaded porous film to a temperature within about 20 degrees of the melting point of the polymer to decrease the Gurley value and the electrical resistivity. The MEAs can be produced in a continuous roll process. The MEAs can be used to produce fuel cells, electrolyzers and electrochemical reactors.

This is a divisional of application Ser. No. 09/208,695 filed Dec. 10,1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,183,668 which is a divisional U.S. applicationSer. No. 08/948,627, filed on Oct. 10, 1997, issued as U.S. Pat. No.5,910,378.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to membrane electrode assemblies andelectrochemical cells such as fuel cells, electrolyzers andelectrochemical reactors.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Fuel cells involve the electrochemical oxidation of a fuel and reductionof an oxidizing agent to produce an electrical current. The two chemicalreactants, i.e., the fuel and the oxidizing agent, undergo redoxreaction at two isolated electrodes, each containing a catalyst incontact with an electrolyte. An ion conduction element is locatedbetween the electrodes to prevent direct reaction of the two reactantsand to conduct ions. Current collectors interface with the electrodes.The current collectors are porous so that reactants can reach thecatalyst sites.

Fuel cells produce current as long as fuel and oxidant are supplied. IfH₂ is the fuel, only heat and water are byproducts of the redoxreactions in the fuel cell. Fuel cells have application whereverelectricity generation is required. Furthermore, fuel cells areenvironmentally benign.

An electrolyzer involves the splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygenusing electricity. Similarly, an electrochemical reactor, such as achlor-alkali cell, uses electricity to produce chlorine from an alkalinebrine. Electrolyzers and electrochemical reactors basically involve afuel cell operating in reverse. For example, for an electrolyzer toproduce hydrogen and oxygen from water by passing an electrical currentthrough the device, an equivalent ion conductive element appropriate foruse in a fuel cell may be located between catalyst layers and currentcollector layers.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In a first aspect, the invention features an electrochemical MEAcomprising:

an ion conductive membrane, the membrane having a first and second majorsurface;

catalyst adjacent to the first and second major surfaces; and

a porous, electrically conductive polymer film adjacent to the ionconductive membrane, the film comprising a polymer matrix and about 45to about 98 percent by weight electrically conductive particles embeddedwithin the polymer matrix.

In a preferred embodiment, the Gurley value of the polymer film is lessthan about 50 s/50 cc. The polymer matrix can include a polymer selectedfrom the group consisting of polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinylidenefluoride, polytetrafluoroethylene,poly(tetrafluoroethylene-co-perfluoro-(propyl vinyl ether)) and mixturesthereof. The electrically conductive particles can comprise carbon. Theporous polymer film preferably has an electrical resistivity of lessthan about 20 ohm-cm.

The catalytic material can be disposed at an interface between the ionconductive membrane and the porous, electrically conductive polymerfilm. The catalytic material can be disposed upon the surfaces of theion conductive membrane. In preferred embodiments, the catalyticmaterial is disposed in nanostructured elements.

In another aspect, the invention features an electrochemical MEAcomprising:

an ion conductive membrane, the membrane having a first and second majorsurface;

catalyst adjacent to the first and second major surfaces; and

a porous, electrically conductive polymer film adjacent to the ionconductive membrane, the film comprising electrically conductiveparticles and a porous matrix of fibrillated PTFE fibrils.

The catalytic material can be disposed at an interface between the ionexchange membrane and the porous, electrically conductive polymer film.The catalytic material can be disposed upon at least one major surfaceof the electrically conductive polymer film. The conductive particlescan comprise carbon. The porous polymer film preferably has a Gurleyvalue of less than 50 s/50 cc and an electrical resistivity of less than20 ohm-cm.

In another aspect, the invention features a method of producing anelectrically conductive polymer film comprising the step of heating aporous, polymer film comprising a polymer matrix and about 45 to about98 percent by weight electrically conductive particles to a temperaturewithin 20° C. of the melting point of the polymer matrix for sufficienttime to decrease the Gurley value of the film by at least about 25percent and decrease the electrical resistivity of the film by at leastabout 25 percent while substantially maintaining the physical integrityand mechanical properties of the film upon cooling. The polymer matrixcan include a polymer selected from the group consisting ofpolyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinylidene fluoride,poly(tetrafluoroethylene-co-perfluoro-(propyl vinyl ether)) and mixturesthereof. The conductive particles can comprise carbon and/or one or moreconductive metals. The porous film preferably includes between about 80and about 98 percent by weight conductive particles. The temperature canrange between about 5 to about 20 degree centigrade above the meltingtemperature. The Gurley value of the film following heating preferablyis less than 50 s/50 cc. The method can further comprise the step ofusing differential cooling for quenching the extruded film to create anasymmetric film with one side being denser and having smaller pores andthe other side being less dense and having larger pores. Thedifferential cooling can be accomplished through the use of a castingwheel at a controlled temperature.

In another aspect, the invention features a method of forming anelectrode backing layer for an electrochemical MEA comprising the stepsof:

(a) forming a polymeric film comprising a crystallizable polyolefinpolymer matrix, conductive particles and a diluent for the polymer,

(b) applying surface texture to the polymeric film; and

(c) removing the oil before or after applying the surface texture.

In another aspect, the invention features a method of forming anelectrochemical MEA comprising the step of placing an electrode backinglayer on both sides of a polymeric ion conductive membrane, theelectrode backing layers each comprising a gas permeable, electricallyconductive porous film prepared as described in the preceding paragraph,wherein a catalyst layer is disposed between each of the ion conductivemembrane and the electrode backing layers.

In another aspect, the invention features a method of forming anelectrochemical MEA comprising the step of placing an electrode backinglayer on both sides of a polymeric ion conductive membrane, theelectrode backing layers each comprising a gas permeable, electricallyconductive porous fibrillated PTFE film and conductive particlesembedded in the film, wherein a catalyst layer is disposed between eachof the ion conductive membrane and the electrode backing layers.

In another aspect, the invention features a method of producing aplurality of 5-layer MEAs, comprising the step of applying catalystlayers and electrode backing layers at suitable locations along a web ofion conduction membrane such that a plurality of 5-layer MEAs can be cutfrom the web of ion conduction membrane.

In another aspect, the invention features a film comprising greater thanabout 45 percent by weight conducting particles, the film having asurface exhibiting under contact with water a receding and advancingcontact angles greater than 90°, wherein the advancing contact angle isno more than 50° greater than the receding contact angle. The advancingcontact angle preferably is no more than 30° greater than the recedingcontact angle, more preferably no more than 20° greater than thereceding contact angle.

In another aspect, the invention features a method of producing a filmcomprising a polymer and greater than about 45 percent by weightconducting particles, the method comprising the steps of heating to atemperature from about the melting point to about 20 degrees C. abovethe melting point and then stretching the film from about 25 percent toabout 150 percent of their original length.

In another aspect, the invention features a polymer web including aplurality of MEA elements. The MEA elements can be disposed along acontinuous web of ion conducting polymeric material. The polymer web canfurther include nanostructured catalyst layers and/or suitably locatedseal material.

Electrode backing layers as described herein have high electricalconductivity, high gas permeability, good water managementcharacteristics and significant production advantages. Membraneelectrode assemblies (MEAs) incorporating the electrode backing layerscan have improved performance as determined by the current produced at agiven fuel cell voltage. Advantageously, films of the present inventionexhibit adequate hydrophobicity for effective water management withoutincurring the expense or the need for a fluoropolymer coating, whoseproperties can change with use. The porous polymeric, electrode backinglayers can be used in efficient, commercial production methods ofmultilayer MEAs including continuous roll processes. Continuous rollprocessing allows for the cost effective assembly of hundreds ofelectrochemical cell components at a relatively rapid rate.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from thefollowing description of the preferred embodiments thereof, and from theclaims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic cross section of a five layer MEA.

FIG. 2 is a schematic cross section of a fuel cell stack.

FIG. 3 is a perspective view of a continuous roll of MEAs.

FIG. 4 is an exploded, perspective view of a fuel cell stack with threecells.

FIG. 5 is a graph depicting the phase behavior of a crystalline,thermoplastic polymer, useful for evaluating the proper conditions inthe TIPT process.

FIG. 6 is a graph of cell voltage vs current density to obtain theresistivity at high current density of carbon-loaded electrode backingmaterials obtained using the TIPT process.

FIG. 7 is a graph of cell voltage versus current density for two fivelayer MEAs incorporating electrode backing layers produced using theTIPT process and, for comparison, a cell produced using commercialelectrode backing material.

FIG. 8 is a graph of cell voltage vs current density for additionalcells produced with carbon-loaded electrode backing materials obtainedusing the TIPT process and, for comparison, a cell produced usingcommercial electrode backing materials.

FIG. 9 is a bar graph showing the Gurley values for electrode backinglayers produced using the PF process and, for comparison, commercialelectrode backing material.

FIG. 10 is a graph of the applied voltage as a function of currentdensity for electrode backing layers produced using the PF process and acommercial electrode backing material, as measured in a fuel cell testassembly.

FIG. 11 is a graph of cell voltage versus current density for fuel cellMEA's incorporating electrode backing layers produced using the PFprocess compared to a fuel cell MEA produced with a commercial electrodebacking layer.

FIG. 12 is a graph of cell voltage versus current density for fuel cellMEA's incorporating electrode backing layers produced using the TIPTprocess along with a control incorporating a commercial material, eachtested with equivalent catalyst coated ion conduction membranes.

FIG. 13 is a graph of cell voltage versus current density for fuel cellsincorporating electrode backing layers produced using the TIPT processusing a smooth casting wheel showing the difference in cell performancefor an asymmetric electrode backing layer in the cell depending on theorientation of the electrode backing film with respect to side-to-sideplacement in the cell.

FIG. 14A is a SEM micrograph of the casting wheel side of thecarbon-filled HDPE film of Example 16A without heat treatment.

FIG. 14B is a SEM micrograph of the air side of the carbon-filled HDPEfilm of Example 16A without heat treatment.

FIG. 14C is a SEM micrograph of a cross-section of the carbon-filledHDPE film of Example 16A without heat treatment.

FIG. 15A is a SEM micrograph of the casting wheel side of thecarbon-filled HDPE film of Example 16B following heat treatment at 130°C.

FIG. 15B is a SEM micrograph of the air side of the carbon-filled HDPEfilm of Example 16B following heat treatment at 130° C.

FIG. 15C is a SEM micrograph of the cross-section of the carbon-filledHDPE film of Example 16B following heat treatment at 130° C.

FIG. 16A is a SEM micrograph of a cross-section of the carbon-filledUHMWPE film of Example 14 before heat treatment.

FIG. 16B is a SEM micrograph of a cross-section of the carbon-filledUHMWPE film of Example 14 after heat treatment.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

A. Electrochemical Cell Structure

Referring to FIG. 1, membrane electrode assembly (MEA) 100 in a fivelayer embodiment has various layers for the electrochemical oxidation ofa fuel and reduction of an oxidizing agent to produce electric current.An ion conductive membrane 102 separates the cathode 104 and anode 106of MEA 100. Each side of ion conductive membrane 102 contacts a catalystlayer, i.e., cathode 104 and anode 106. Catalyst layers 104, 106 eachcontact an electrode backing layer 108, 110. Electrode backing layers108, 110 respectively contact bipolar plates 112, 114. The shape andsize of the components of the electrochemical cell can vary over a widerange depending on particular design. FIG. 1 depicts the flow ofreactants for a fuel cell. In electrolyzers and electrochemicalreactors, a voltage is applied to the MEA to decompose a compositionflowed to the electrodes, for example for the formation of Cl₂. Thediscussion below focuses on fuel cells, although the analogy toelectrolyzers and electrochemical reactors is straightforward.

The ion conductive membrane provides ionic conductivity between theanode and cathode and forms a gaseous barrier blocking flow of thereactants. In some embodiments, the ion conductive membrane may beconductive only of ions either of positive charge or negative charge,i.e., either a cation exchange membrane or an anion exchange membrane,or only of one type of ion, e.g., a proton exchange membrane.

While being conductive of some type of ions, the ion conductive membraneshould be nonconductive with respect to electrons and gaseous reactants.To prevent the passage of gaseous reactants, the ion conductive membraneshould have sufficient thickness for mechanical stability and should beeffectively nonpermeable. The conduction of gaseous reactants throughthe ion exchange membrane could result in the undesirable directreaction of the reactants. Similarly, the conduction of electronsthrough the ion conductive membrane could result in an undesirable shortcircuit of the cell. Therefore, materials used in producing the ionconductive membrane should not conduct electrons. In the case of directreaction of the reactants or of a short circuit, the energy released bythe reaction of the fuel and oxidizing agent cannot be used to produceelectricity.

The ion conductive membrane can include a polymer electrolyte. Thepolymers should be chemically stable and compatible with the catalystsso that the catalyst is not poisoned. Polymer electrolytes can be madefrom a variety of polymers including, for example, polyethylene oxide,poly (ethylene succinate), poly (β-propiolactone), and sulfonatedfluoropolymers such as Nafion™ (commercially available from DuPontChemicals, Wilmington, Del.). Nafion™ is produced by hydrolyzing acopolymer of polytetrafluoroethylene withperfluorosulfonylethoxyvinylether and converting its sulfonyl radical toa sulfonic radical. A suitable cation exchange membrane is described inU.S. Pat. No. 5,399,184, incorporated herein by reference.

Alternatively, the ion conductive membrane can be an expanded membranewith a porous microstructure where an ion exchange material impregnatesthe membrane effectively filling the interior volume of the membrane.U.S. Pat. No. 5,635,041, incorporated herein by reference, describessuch a membrane formed from expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Theexpanded PTFE membrane has a microstructure of nodes interconnected byfibrils. Similar structures are described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,849,311,incorporated herein by reference.

The half-cell reactions of the fuel and the oxidizing agent take placeat separate catalyst surfaces. The reactant gases, i.e., fuel andoxidizing agent, must be able to penetrate to their respective catalystlayer. A catalyst generally is in the form of particles disposed in alayer with an ionomer or electrolyte, in intimate contact with the ionconductive membrane and the electrode backing layer. The catalyst layercan be applied to the ion conductive membrane or the electrode backinglayer by various methods. In other words, the catalyst can be applied tothe surface of the ion conductive membrane and/or to a surface of theelectrode backing layer. Alternatively, the catalyst layer can beencapsulated or embedded in the surface of the ion conductive membrane.

For example, the ion conductive membrane can include a nanostructuredcatalyst layer such as the membranes described in U.S. Pat. No.5,338,430, incorporated herein by reference. The nanostructured filmshave a plurality of nanostructured elements that are eithertwo-component whiskers coated with catalytically active material or onecomponent structures including catalytically active material. Thenanostructured elements can be embedded in an encapsulant such as asolid electrolyte, an ion exchange membrane, or other polymeric matrix.The production of nanostructured membranes is described in U.S. Pat. No.5,238,729, incorporated herein by reference.

Appropriate catalysts for fuel cells generally depend on the reactantsselected. Suitable catalyst materials for oxidation of hydrogen ormethanol fuels include metals such as, for example, Pd, Pt, Ru, Rh andalloys thereof. Commonly used catalysts for oxygen reduction includeplatinum supported on carbon particles. Different catalysts may bepreferred for use in electrolyzers and electrochemical reactors. Forexample, for oxygen evolution in an electrolyzer, a mixture of Ru and Iroxides generally show better performance than Pt.

The electrode backing layer functions as a current collector. Theelectrode backing layer is porous for the passage of gaseous reactants.To impart electrical conductivity, the electrode backing layer includeselectrically conducting particles. If desired, the electrode backinglayer can be textured. Detailed features of the electrode backing layerare described below.

Bipolar plates typically have channels and/or grooves in their surfacesthat distribute fuel and oxidant to their respective catalystelectrodes. Typically, bipolar plates are highly electrically conductiveand can be made from graphite and metals. The electrodes and electrodebacking layers of the present invention generally can be used with anystandard fuels including H₂ and reformed hydrocarbons such as methanoland gasoline, and standard oxidants including O₂ in air or in pure form.

Generally, a plurality of fuel cells or MEAs 150 are combined to form afuel cell stack 152 as depicted in FIG. 2. The cells within the stacksare connected in series by virtue of the bipolar plates such that thevoltages of the individual fuel cells are additive. Further detailsrelating to formation of a fuel cell stack are presented below.

B. Electrode Backing Layer/Electrode

The electrode backing layer comprises a porous polymer film including apolymer binder and conductive particles. In general, the film shouldhave a high loading of conductive particles held together by arelatively small portion of polymer matrix. The film generally hasgreater than about 45 percent by volume conductive particles and morepreferably between about 65 percent and about 96 percent by volumeconductive particles. In addition to the conductive particles, acatalyst layer (electrode) can be coated on a surface of the electrodebacking layer.

The porosity of the polymer film forming the electrode backing layerprovides for flow of reactants to the catalyst particles at theinterface of the electrode backing layer and the ion conductivemembrane. Preferred films have a porosity adequate to provide for aneven flow of reactants while maintaining adequate electricalconductivity and mechanical strength of the film. Also, the porosity ofthe polymer film provides for water management within the cell. Theelectrode backing layer preferably is sufficiently porous to pass fuelgas and water vapor through it without providing a site for watercondensation that would block the pores of the film and prevent vaportransport. The mean pore size generally ranges from about 0.01micrometers to about 10.0 micrometers. Alternatively, porosity of theweb can be quantified by the Gurley value of the web, that is, theamount of time needed for a given volume of gas to pass through apredetermined area of the web under a specified pressure drop, asdescribed below. Suitable webs generally have Gurley values less thanabout 100 seconds per 10 cc.

To assist with water management, electrode backing layers withasymmetric porosity can be used. The electrode backing layer adjacent tothe cathode, where water is formed, preferably has smaller poresadjacent to the cathode and larger pores at the outside of the MEAadjacent the bipolar plate. The higher pressure in the small pores tendsto push the water away from the cathode. The formation of electrodebacking layers having asymmetric porosity is described below.

Conductive particles can include a variety of conductive materials suchas metals and carbon. The conductive particles can have a variety ofshapes and sizes. Preferred conductive particles include, for example,conductive carbons. The conductive particles are preferably less thanabout 10 microns in diameter and more preferably less than about 1micron in diameter. Suitable carbon particles include, for example,carbon black, graphite, carbon fibers, fullerenes and nanotubules.Preferred carbon particles include, for example, carbon blacks.Commercially available carbon blacks include, for example, Vulcan XC72R™(Cabot Corp., Bilerica, Mass.), Shawinigan C-55™ 50% compressedacetylene black (Chevron Chemical Co., Houston, Tex.), Norit type SX1™(Norit Americas Inc., Atlanta, Ga.), Corax L™ and Corax P™ (DegussaCorp., Ridgefield Park, N.J.), Conductex 975™ (Colombian Chemical Co.,Atlanta, Ga.), Super S™ and Super P™ (MMM Carbon Div., MMM nv, Brussels,Belgium), KetJen Black EC 600JD™ (Akzo Nobel Chemicals, Inc., Chicago,Ill.). Useful graphite particles range in size up to about 50 μm indiameter, preferably from about 1 to about 15 μm. Suitable commercialgraphites include, for example, MCMB 6-28™ (Osaka Gas Chemical Co.,Osaka, Japan), and SFG 15™ (Alusuisse Lonza America Inc., now Timcal,Fair Lawn, N.J.). Conductive carbon black can have primary particles assmall as about 10 nm to about 15 nm, though as sold they may be presentin agglomerates as large as several mm. After dispersion, theseagglomerates are broken down preferably into particles less than about0.1 micron (100 nm). Mixtures of graphite and more conductive carbonblacks are also useful. Conductive carbon fibers useful in electrodebacking materials of the invention include, e.g., those available fromSTREM Chemicals, Inc., Newburyport, Mass., catalog No. 06-0140, havinglengths of approximately 6 mm and diameters of 0.001 cm.

In general, the polymer matrix can include any polymer that can beprocessed appropriately into a porous film loaded with particles.Suitable types of polymers include, for example, thermoplastic polymers,thermosensitive polymers and fluoropolymers. Two preferred processingmethods are described below. These preferred processing methods provideadditional constraints on the characteristics of the correspondingpolymers.

In addition to the conductive particles, fillers can be used to alterthe physical properties of the polymer films useful in the invention.Appropriate fillers include, e.g. silica (SiO₂), powderedpolytetrafluoroethylene and graphite fluoride (CF_(n)). The polymerfilms preferably can include up to about 20 percent by weight fillers,and more preferably from about 2 to about 10 percent by weight fillers.The fillers are generally in the form of particles.

Preferably, the electrode backing layers have an electrical resistivityof less than about 20 Ohm-cm, more preferably less than about 10 Ohm-cm,and most preferably less than about 0.5 Ohm-cm. Also, films useful aselectrodes in the invention preferably exhibit advancing and recedingcontact angles toward water of greater than about 90°, more preferablyof greater than about 110° wherein the advancing contact angle isgreater than the receding contact angle by less than about 50°,preferably less than about 30°, and more preferably less than about 20°.The measurement of the advancing and receding contact angles isdescribed below. Receding and advancing contact angles of water are animportant measure of the hydrophobicity of the film surface and theability of the film to function effectively in the water management ofthe fuel cell. The contact angles can be different on the two surfacesof the electrode backing layer. Similarly, the contact angles for thecathode and anode can be different.

The resistance to gas flow of a polymer film can be expressed in termsof the Gurley value. The Gurley value is a measure of the flow rate of agas through a standardized area of the film under controlled pressureconditions, as described in ASTM D726-58, Method A, as described furtherbelow. The electrode backing layers preferably have a Gurley value ofless than about 100 sec/50 cc air and more preferably less than about 50sec/50 cc air.

The surfaces of the electrode backing layers can be microtexturedpossibly providing enhanced interfacial electrical conductivity, watermanagement and flow field performance. For example, the material can becast onto a textured casting wheel or can be embossed using a nip rollwherein one of the rolls is textured. A surface textured electrodebacking layer can facilitate gas (e.g. fuel, oxygen, and/or water vapor)transport into and out of the fuel cell and channeling of liquid wateraway from the cathode.

Two processes for the production of preferred polymer films aredescribed next.

1. TIPT Process

The first preferred process for the production of porous electrodebacking layers involves thermally induced phase transition (TIPT). TheTIPT process is based on the use of a polymer that is soluble in adiluent at an elevated temperature and insoluble in the diluent at arelatively lower temperature. The “phase transition” can involve asolid-liquid phase separation, a liquid-liquid phase separation or aliquid to gel phase transition. The “phase transition” need not involvea discontinuity in a thermodynamic variable.

Suitable polymers for the TIPT process include thermoplastic polymers,thermosensitive polymers and mixtures of polymers of these types, withthe mixed polymers being compatible. Thermosensitive polymers such asultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) cannot bemelt-processed directly but can be melt processed in the presence of adiluent or plasticizer that lowers the viscosity sufficiently for meltprocessing. Suitable polymers may be either crystallizable or amorphous.

Suitable polymers include, for example, crystallizable vinyl polymers,condensation polymers and oxidation polymers. Representativecrystallizable vinyl polymers include, for example, high and low densitypolyethylene; polypropylene; polybutadiene; polyacrylates such aspolymethyl methacrylate; fluorine-containing polymers such aspolyvinylidene fluoride; and corresponding copolymers. Condensationpolymers include, for example, polyesters such as polyethyleneterephthalate and polybutylene terethphalate; polyamides such as nylons;polycarbonates; and polysulfones. Oxidation polymers include, forexample, polyphenylene oxide and polyether ketones. Other suitablepolymers include the copolymer,poly(tetrafluoroethylene-co-perfluoro-(propyl vinyl ether)) sold asTeflon™ PFA (E. I. DuPont de Nemours Chemical Corp., Wilmington; Del.).Blends of polymers and copolymers may also be used. Preferredcrystallizable polymers for electrode backing layers include polyolefinsand fluoropolymers, because of their resistance to hydrolysis andoxidation.

Suitable diluents are liquids or solids at room temperature and liquidsat the melting temperature of the polymer. Low molecular weight diluentsare preferred since they can be extracted more readily than highermolecular weight diluents. Low to moderate molecular weight polymers,however, can be used as diluents if the diluent polymer and the matrixpolymer are miscible in the melt state. Compounds with boiling pointsbelow the melting temperature of the polymer can be used as diluents byusing a superatmospheric pressure sufficient to produce a liquid at thepolymer melting temperature.

The compatibility of the diluent with the polymer can be evaluated bymixing the polymer while heating to determine whether a single liquidphase is formed, as indicated generally by existence of a clearhomogeneous solution. An appropriate polymer dissolves or forms a singlephase with the diluent at the melting temperature of the polymer butforms a continuous network on cooling to a temperature below the meltingtemperature of the polymer. The continuous network is either a separatephase from the diluent or a gel where the diluent acts as a plasticizerswelling the polymer network. The gel state may be considered a singlephase.

For non-polar polymers, non-polar organic liquids generally arepreferred as a diluent. Similarly, polar organic liquids generally arepreferred with polar polymers. When blends of polymers are used,preferred diluents are compatible with each of the polymers. When thepolymer is a block copolymer, the diluent preferably is compatible witheach polymer block. Blends of two of more liquids can be used as thediluent as long as the polymer is soluble in the liquid blend at themelt temperature of the polymer, and a phase transition with theformation of a polymer network occurs upon cooling.

Various organic compounds are useful as a diluent, including compoundsfrom the following broad classifications: aliphatic acids; aromaticacids; aliphatic alcohols; aromatic alcohols; cyclic alcohols;aldehydes; primary amines; secondary amines; aromatic amines;ethoxylated amines; diamines; amides; esters and diesters such assebacates, phthalates, stearates, adipates and citrates; ethers;ketones; epoxy compounds such as epoxidized vegetable oils; phosphateesters such as tricresyl phosphate; various hydrocarbons such aseicosane, coumarin-indene resins and terpene resins, tall oil, linseedoil and blends such as petroleum oil including lubricating oils and fueloils, hydrocarbon resin and asphalt; and various organic heterocycliccompounds.

Examples of particular blends of polymers and diluents that are usefulin preparing suitable porous materials include polypropylene withaliphatic hydrocarbons such as mineral oil and mineral spirits, esterssuch as dioctyl phthalate and dibutyl phthalate, or ethers such asdibenzyl ether; ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene with mineral oilor waxes; high density polyethylene with aliphatic hydrocarbons such asmineral oil, aliphatic ketones such as methyl nonyl ketone, or an estersuch as dioctyl phthalate; low density polyethylene with aliphatic acidssuch as decanoic acid and oleic acid, or primary alcohols such as decylalcohol; polypropylene-polyethylene copolymer with mineral oil; andpolyvinylidene fluoride with dibutyl phthalate.

A particular combination of polymer and diluent may include more thanone polymer and/or more than one diluent. Mineral oil and mineralspirits are each examples of a diluent being a mixture of compoundssince they are typically blends of hydrocarbon liquids. Similarly,blends of liquids and solids also can serve as the diluent.

For thermoplastic polymers, the melt blend preferably includes fromabout 10 parts to about 80 parts by weight of the thermoplastic polymerand from about 90 to about 20 parts by weight of the diluent.Appropriate relative amounts of thermoplastic polymer and diluent varywith each combination. For UHMWPE polymers, an example of athermosensitive polymer, the melt blend preferably includes from about 2parts to about 50 parts of polymer and from about 98 parts to about 50parts by weight of diluent.

For crystalline polymers the polymer concentration that can be used fora solid-liquid or liquid-liquid phase separation in a given system canbe determined by reference to the temperature-composition graph for apolymer-diluent system, an example of which is set forth in FIG. 5. Suchgraphs can be readily developed as described in Smolders, van Aartsenand Steenbergen, Kolloid-Zu Z. Polymere, 243:14-20 (1971). Phasetransitions can be located by determining the cloud point for a seriesof compositions at a sufficiently slow rate of cooling that the systemstays near equilibrium.

Referring to FIG. 5, the portion of the curve from gamma to alpharepresents the thermodynamic equilibrium liquid-liquid phase separation.T_(ucst) represents the upper critical temperature of the systems. Theportion of the curve from alpha to beta represents the equilibriumliquid-solid phase separation. The diluent can be chosen such that thecrystallizable polymer and diluent system exhibits liquid-solid phaseseparation or liquid-liquid phase separation over the entire compositionrange.

Φ_(ucst) represents the critical composition. To form the desired porouspolymers, the polymer concentration utilized for a particular systempreferably is greater than Φ_(ucst). If the polymer concentration isbelow the critical concentration (Φ_(ucst)), the phase separation, uponcooling, generally forms a continuous phase of diluent with dispersed orweakly associated polymer particles, and the resulting polymercomposition typically lacks sufficient strength to be useful.

For a given cooling rate, the temperature-concentration curve of thediluent-polymer blend can be determined by Differential ScanningCalorimetry (DSC), for example, as indicated by the dashed line of FIG.5 for one rate of cooling. The resulting plot of polymer concentrationversus melting temperature shows the concentration ranges that result insolid-liquid (sloped portion of the dashed curve) and in liquid-liquid(horizontal portion of the dashed curve) phase separation. From thiscurve, the concentration ranges of the polymer and liquid that yield thedesired porous structure can be estimated. The determination of themelting temperature-concentration curve by DSC is an alternative todetermination of the equilibrium temperature-composition curve for acrystalline polymer.

The above discussion of phase diagrams is applicable to amorphouspolymers except that only liquid-liquid phase separation can beobserved. In this case, a cloud point generally is indicative of theparticular phase transition. Similarly, for gel forming polymers thephase transition of relevance involves a transition from a homogeneoussolution to a gel. With gel forming polymers, an abrupt increase inviscosity is indicative of a phase transition from the melt to the gel,although a cloud point may also occur in some cases.

For many diluent-polymer systems, when the rate of cooling of theliquid-polymer solution is slow, liquid-liquid phase separation occursat substantially the same time as the formation of a plurality of liquiddroplets of substantially uniform size. When the cooling rate is slowenough such that the droplets form, the resultant porous polymer has acellular microstructure. In contrast, if the rate of cooling of theliquid-polymer solution is rapid, the solution undergoes a spontaneoustransformation called spinodal decomposition, and the resultant porouspolymer has a fine, lacy structure with a qualitatively differentmorphology and physical properties than obtained following dropletformation, which can be obtained if the rate of cooling is slow. Thefine porous structure is referred to as a lacy structure.

When liquid-solid phase separation occurs, the material has an internalstructure characterized by a multiplicity of spaced, randomly disposed,non-uniform shaped, particles of polymer. Adjacent polymer particlesthroughout the material are separated from one another to provide thematerial with a network of interconnected micropores and being connectedto each other by a plurality of fibrils consisting of the polymer. Thefibrils elongate upon orientation providing greater spacing between thepolymer particles and increased porosity. The filler particles reside inor are attached to the thermoplastic polymer of the formed structure.

In the case of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), thearticle obtained upon cooling may exist in a gel state. The nature ofthe underlying polymer network is affected by the rate of cooling. Fastcooling tends to promote gel formation while slower cooling tends toallow more crystallization to occur. Gel formation tends to dominate forcompositions having diluent/UHMWPE weight ratios greater than 80:20,whereas crystallization dominates increasingly for diluent/UHMWPE weightratios less than 80:20. The polymer network in the case of highlyparticle filled UHMWPE as determined by SEM, after extraction of thediluent, tends to be a fairly dense structure having fine pores. Thestructure of the network can be changed by the extraction process. Thehighly particle filled UHMWPE films are porous after extraction withoutneed for restraint during extraction or stretching.

If desired, the polymer can be blended with certain additives that aresoluble or dispersible in the polymer. When used, the additives arepreferably less than about 10 percent by weight of the polymer componentand more preferably less than about 2 is percent by weight. Typicaladditives include, for example, antioxidants and viscosity modifiers.

The melt blend further includes particulates for incorporation into theelectrode. For the resulting filled compositions, porous polymer filmscan be obtained by extraction of the diluent without physical restraintduring extraction or stretching of the film. In some cases, restraint ofthe film during extraction may result in larger bubble points andsmaller Gurley values than for a film extracted without restraint.Particles for the production of an electrode backing layer can includeconductive particles. The particles can be a mixture of materials. Theparticles preferably form a dispersion in the diluent and are insolublein the melt blend of polymer and diluent. The appropriate types ofmaterials have been described above, as long as the materials areappropriately compatible with the polymer and diluent.

Some of the particulates, especially small sized carbon particles, canserve as nucleating-agents. The nucleating agent can be a solid or gelat the crystallization temperature of the polymer. A wide variety ofsolid materials can be used as nucleating agents, depending on theirsize, crystal form, and other physical parameters. Smaller solidparticles, e.g., in the submicron range, tend to function better asnucleating agents. Preferably, nucleating agents range in size fromabout 0.01 to about 0.1 μm and more preferably from about 0.01 to about0.05 μm. Certain polymers such as polypropylene perform better in theTIPT process with a nucleating agent present.

In the presence of a nucleating agent, the number of sites at whichcrystallization is initiated is increased relative to the number in theabsence of the nucleating agent. The resultant polymer particles have areduced size. Moreover, the number of fibrils connecting the polymerparticles per unit volume is increased. The tensile strength of thematerial is increased relative to porous films made without thenucleating agent.

In the porous networks, preferably the particles are uniformlydistributed in the polymer matrix, and are firmly held in the polymericmatrix such that they do not wash out on subsequent extraction of thediluent using solvent. The average particle spacing depends on thevolume loading of the particles in the polymer, and preferably, in thecase of conductive particles, the particles are in sufficiently closeproximity to sustain electrical conductivity. Processing of particles inthe polymer matrix, particularly conductive carbon particles, requirescare, since undermixing can result in poor dispersion, characterized bylumps of particles (e.g., knots of carbon), and overmixing can cause theagglomerates to disperse completely in the polymer. Conductive particleproximity is important for higher levels of conductivity. Therefore,both extremes are unfavorable for the conductive properties of themixture.

The melt blend can contain as high as about 40 percent to about 50percent by volume dispersed particles. By combining high diluentconcentrations with high volume percent of particles, a high weightpercent of particles can be achieved after the diluent has beenextracted from the phase separated polymer composition. Preferably, theextracted and dried polymer material includes from about 50 percent toabout 98 percent particles and more preferably from about 70 percent toabout 98 percent by weight particles.

The diluent eventually is removed from the material to yield aparticle-filled, substantially liquid-free, porouselectrically-conductive polymeric material. The diluent may be removedby, for example, solvent extraction, sublimation, volatilization, or anyother convenient method. Following removal of the diluent, the particlephase preferably remains entrapped to a level of at least about 90percent, more preferably about 95 percent and most preferably about 99percent, in the porous structure. In other words, few of the particlesare removed when the diluent is eliminated, as evidenced by lack ofparticulates in the solvent washing vessel.

The process is described below generally and can be varied based on theteachings herein. In one embodiment of the TIPT process, the particlesare disposed beneath the surface of the diluent, and entrapped air isremoved from the mixture. A standard high speed shear mixer operating atseveral hundred RPM to several thousand RPM for about several minutes toabout 60 minutes can be used to facilitate this step. Appropriate highspeed shear mixers are made, for example, by Premier Mill Corp.,Reading, Pa. and by Shar Inc., Fort Wayne, Ind.

If more dispersion is needed following the first mixing step, it can beachieved through milling of the dispersion before pumping the dispersioninto the extruder, or through introduction of dispersing elements intothe extruder. For shear sensitive polymers such as UHMWPE, mostparticulate dispersion preferably is done prior to pumping thedispersion into the extruder to minimize the shear needed in theextruder. If required, the second step involves dispersing the particlesin the diluent and may include breaking down particle agglomerates tosmaller agglomerates to eliminate large clumps within the diluent.Complete dispersion to primary particles generally is not necessary ordesirable since contact or proximity between conducting particlesgenerally promotes electrical conductivity.

The degree of preferred dispersion can be determined by inspection ofthe final electrode film for surface roughness and by determining itsconductivity. The surface should be generally smooth and uniform with noprotrusions through the surface large enough to be seen by eye.Insufficient dispersion of particulates can result in films having roughsurfaces with a texture of fine to coarse sandpaper. In certaininstances, no milling is needed since the shear used simply to wet outthe particulates results in sufficient dispersion. Appropriate selectionof components such as the diluent and the to initial particles cangreatly facilitate the dispersing step.

When additional dispersion is required or desired, the diluentcontaining the particulate material can be processed in a mill.Preferably, particle/diluent milling is carried out at relatively highviscosity where the milling process is more effective. Useful millsinclude, for example, attritors, horizontal bead mills and sand mills.Typically, a single pass through a horizontal bead mill at a moderatethrough-put rate (i.e., moderate relative to the maximum through-putrate of the mill) is sufficient. When significant amounts of dispersionare required, milling times for recirculation of the dispersion throughthe mill of less than an hour may be sufficient in some cases, whilemilling times of at least about 4 to about 8 hours may be needed inother cases.

An example of an appropriate instrument for processing small batches isan attritor Model 6TSG-1-4, manufactured by Igarachi Kikai Seizo Co.Ltd., Tokyo, Japan. This attritor has a water-cooled with about a 1liter volume which operates at about 1500 RPM with a capacity to processabout 500 cc of material. For larger batches, appropriate instrumentsinclude horizontal mills such as those sold by Premier Mill Corp.,Reading, Pa., in a variety of sizes.

Milling reduces agglomerates to smaller agglomerates or primaryparticles but generally does not break down primary particles to smallerparticles. Filtration of the milled dispersion may be an optional step,if a greater number of larger particles are present than desired. Anappropriate filter would be, for example, a model C3B4U 3 micronrope-wound filter made by Brunswick Technitics (Timonium, Md.) to removeagglomerated particles or particles larger than 3 microns, for example.

Filtering results in a more uniform article and allows metering of thedispersions under pressure by close tolerance gear pumps during theextrusion process without frequent breakdowns due to large particlesclogging the pump. After filtering, the concentration of the particlescan be determined, for example, using a Model DMA-4S Mettler/Paardensity meter manufactured by Mettler-Toledo, Inc., Hightstown, N.J.

A dispersant can be added to the mixture of diluent and particles to aidin stabilizing the dispersion of particles in the diluent and inmaintaining the particles as unaggregated. If a dispersant is used, thediluent-particle mixture preferably contains from about 1 percent toabout 100 percent by weight of dispersant relative to the weight of theparticles.

Anionic, cationic and nonionic dispersants can be used. Examples ofuseful dispersants include OLOA 1200™, a succinimide lubricating oiladditive, available from Chevron Chemical Co., Houston, Tex., or theHypermer™ series of dispersants, available from ICI Americas,Wilmington, Del.

The diluent-particle mixture generally is heated to about 150° C. todegas the mixture before pumping the mixture into an extruder. Themixture can be pumped into the extruder with or without cooling themixture to ambient temperature. The polymer is fed typically into thefeed zone of the extruder using a gravimetric or volumetric feeder. (Inan alternative embodiment, at least some of the carbon is fed with thepolymer into the extruder.) For thermoplastic polymers, feed and meltzone temperatures preferably are selected so that the polymer is atleast partially melted before contacting diluent. If the particles areeasily dispersed, the particles can be fed at a controlled rate into theextruder, and the diluent separately metered into the extruder. Also, avariety of in-line mixers are available that provide for dispersion ofparticulates on a continuous in-line basis from streams of particles andliquids. Alternatively, in cases where adequate dispersion can beobtained in the extruder, separate streams of polymer, diluent andconductive particles can be fed directly into the extruder.

Then, a melt blend of the diluent-particle mixture is formed with thepolymer in the extruder. Following sufficient mixing in the extruder,the melt blend is cast into the desired form. Typically, since a film isdesired, the melt blend is extruded onto a temperature-controlledcasting wheel using a drop die. A twin-screw extruder is preferred.

Following formation of the desired shape of material, the material iscooled, preferably rapidly, to induce the phase transition. Quenchconditions depend on film thickness, extrusion rate, polymercomposition, polymer-to-diluent ratio, and desired film properties.Preferred conditions for a specific film can be readily determined. Forhigher quench temperatures, film strength may be diminished relative tofilms formed at lower quench temperatures. Rapid cooling can beaccomplished by, for example, cooling in sufficiently cold air, coolingby contact on one or more sides with a temperature-controlled castingwheel or immersion of the material in a temperature-controlled liquid.Following quenching, the diluent is removed. If solvent is used toremove the diluent, remaining solvent is removed by evaporation.

For a given polymer-diluent combination, use of a casting wheel,especially a smooth casting wheel, can result in an asymmetric film. Asthe casting wheel temperature is lowered, it is increasing likely thatthe resulting film will be asymmetric. Typically, the side of the filmtoward the casting wheel has a “ski” that is denser and has smallerpores. Alternatively, a higher casting wheel temperature relative to theair temperature can result in a denser surface layer on the air side. Ingeneral, a lower casting wheel temperature produces a film that isstronger, denser on the casting wheel side, and has a smaller bubblepoint and higher Gurley value. Asymetric films can be produced by otherasymmetric quenching methods.

2. Polymer-Fibrillation (PF) Process

The second preferred process for the formation of porous electrodebacking layers involves the preparation of a porous web comprisingconductive particles, such as carbon, metals, and the like, enmeshed ina fibril forming polymer. The process includes the formation of amixture of the fibril forming polymer, a lubricant and insolublenonswellable particles such as conductive carbon particles. Theparticles are approximately evenly distributed in the composite and areenmeshed in the fibril forming polymer. This process is adapted from theprocess outlined in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,153,661, 4,460,642, 5,071,610,5,113,860, and 5,147,539, which are incorporated herein by reference.

Preferred fibril forming polymers include halogenated vinyl polymerssuch as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Dry powder PTFE such as Teflon™6C can be used as the starting material. Alternatively, the process canbe performed starting with a commercially-available aqueous dispersionof PTFE particles, such as Teflon 30™, Teflon 30b™ and Teflon 42™ (E. I.DuPont de Nemours Chemical Corp., Wilmington, Del.), wherein water actsas a lubricant for subsequent processing. Commercially available PTFEaqueous dispersions may contain other ingredients such as surfactantsand stabilizers, which promote continued suspension of the PTFEparticles. In some applications, it is advantageous to remove thesurfactant, if present, by extraction at a desired point in the process.

The lubricant must be selected such that the polymer is not soluble inthe lubricant. Preferred lubricants include water, organic solvents andmitures of water and miscible organic solvents that can be convenientlyremoved by washing or drying. In some circumstances water has adeleterious effect on the added particles (i.e., causes unacceptableswelling or agglomeration) or inhibits dispersion of the particles.Suitable organic lubricants include, for example, alcohols, ketones,esters, ethers, and fluorinated fluids. Fluorinated fluids include, forexample, perfluorinated compounds such as Fluorinert™ (3M, Saint Paul,Minn.) or other competitive perfluorinated compositions.“Perfluorinated” is used to indicate that substantially all of thehydrogen atoms have been replaced by fluorine atoms. Electrode backinglayers containing carbon particles preferably are prepared using aperfluorinated liquid lubricant. Preferably, the liquid used isFluorinert FC40™, although other liquids such as Fluorinert FC-5312™ canalso be used. Alternatives also include Galden™ and Fomblin™perfluorinated fluids (Ausimont USA, Thorofare, N.J.; Ausimont S.p.A.,Montedison Group, Milan, Italy).

Preferred nonpolymer particles have a solubility of less than about 1.0gram in 100 grams of lubricant at the mixing temperature. The particlescan be but do not need to be absorbent or adsorbent with respect to thelubricant. The absorptive or adsorptive capability of the particles withrespect to lubricant preferably is less than about 10 percent by weightand more preferably less than about 1 percent. The particles preferablyhave an average diameter less than about 200 microns, more preferably inthe range from about 0.01 microns to about 100.0 microns and morepreferably in the range from about 0. 1 microns to about 10.0 microns.Generally, the nonpolymer particles are primarily or exclusivelyconductive particles such as conductive carbon particles. Due to thewetting properties of certain particles including conductive carbonparticles, non-aqueous, organic lubricants are preferred when theparticles are used in large quantities.

Small amounts of additives such as various particulate surface propertymodifiers can be added. Any additional additives should be inert underthe conditions of operation of the fuel cell. Suitable additives includesynthetic and natural polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene.

For electrode backing layers formed by the FP process, the weight ratioof particles to polymer can be in the range from about 40:1 to about1:4, preferably from about 25:1 to about 1:1, and more preferably fromabout 20:1 to about 10:1. The lubricant preferably is added in an amountexceeding the absorptive and adsorptive capability of the particles byat least about 3 percent by weight and below an amount at which thepolymer mass loses its integrity, more preferably by at least about 5weight percent and less than about 200 percent, even more preferably byat least about 25 percent and less than about 200 percent and yet evenmore preferably by at least 40 percent and less than about 150 percent.In one preferred embodiment, about 95 parts by weight of conductiveparticles is used with about 5 parts by weight of PTFE, and the weightratio of inert fluid to solids (conductive particles plus PTFE) is about8:1.

The absorptive capacity of the particles is exceeded when small amountsof lubricant can no longer be incorporated into the putty-like masswithout separation of lubricant. A large viscosity change takes placecorresponding to a transition from a paste to a slurry. An amount oflubricant exceeding the absorptive and adsorptive capacity of theparticles should be maintained throughout the entire mixing operation.Since the void volume and porosity are controlled by the amount oflubricant used, the amount of lubricant can be varied in order to obtainelectrode backing layers having a desired porosity and void volume.Generally, increasing the amount of lubricant increases void volume andmean pore size.

The mean pore size of the final article generally is in the range fromabout 0.01 micrometers to about 10.0 micrometers, and more preferablyfrom about 0.1 micrometers to about 1.0 micrometers. With respect todistribution of pore size, preferably at least about 90 percent of thepores have a size less than 1 micrometer. The void volume as measured byMercury Intrusion Porosity preferably ranges from about 10 percent toabout 50 percent and more preferably from about 25 percent to about 35percent. Typical Gurley values for webs of the invention range fromabout 2 seconds per 10 cc to about 100 seconds per 10 cc. Preferably,webs useful in the invention exhibit a Gurley values of less than about50 seconds per 10 cc and, more preferably less than about 40 seconds per10 cc.

The resistivity of the final article generally is in the range fromabout 0.01 ohm-cm to about 10 ohm-cm, and more preferably from about 0.1ohm-cm to about 2.0 ohm-cm.

To practice the PF process, the materials are blended together to form asoft dough-like mixture. If a solid powdered polymer is used, a lowsurface energy solvent, as described above, can be used to disperse thepolymer into the mix. The blend is mixed at a temperature and for a timesufficient to cause initial fibrillation of the PTFE particles. Themixing temperature is selected to maintain the solvent in liquid form.The temperature preferably is in the range from about 0° C. and about100° C., preferably from about 20° C. and about 60° C.

Initial fibrillation can take place simultaneously with the initialmixing of the ingredients. If additional mixing is needed, mixing timesgenerally range from about 0.2 minutes to about 2 minutes to obtaininitial fibrillation of the fibril forming polymer. Initial fibrillationgenerally is optimum within about 90 seconds after the point when allcomponents have been fully incorporated together into a putty-likeconsistency. Mixing for shorter or longer times may produce a compositesheet with inferior properties. Preferably, mixing is ended after goingthrough or reaching a viscosity maximum. This initial mixing causespartial disoriented fibrillation of the fibril forming polymerparticles.

Devices useful for obtaining the necessary intensive mixing includecommercially available mixing devices that sometimes are referred to asinternal mixers, kneading mixers, double-blade batch mixers, intensivemixers and twin screw extruder compounding mixers. Preferred mixers ofthis type include sigma-blade mixers and sigma-arm mixers. Commerciallyavailable mixers of this type include those sold under the designationsBanbury™ mixer (Farrel Corp., Ansonia, Conn.), Mogul™ mixer (LittelfordDay Inc., Florence, Ky.), Brabender Prep™ mixer and Brabender™ sigmablade mixer (C. W. Brabender Instruments, Inc., South Hackensack, N.J.)and Ross™ mixers (AHing-Lander Co., Chesaire, Conn.).

Following mixing, the putty-like mass is transferred to a calenderingdevice. The blend is subjected to repeated biaxial calendering betweencalendering rolls to cause additional fibrillation of the polymer. Fortypical lubricant/polymer combinations, the calendering rolls preferablyare maintained at a temperature less than about 125°, more preferably ata temperature from about 0° C. to about 100° C. and even more preferablyfrom about 20° C. to about 60° C. Lubricant lost to evaporation can bereplaced between passes through the calender. During calendering,lubricant levels are maintained at least at a level exceeding theabsorptive capacity of the solids by at least about 3 percent by weight,until sufficient fibrillation occurs to produce the desired void volumeand porosity.

The calendering is repeated to form a self supporting tear resistantsheet. The gap between the calendering rolls generally is decreased witheach successive pass. The material typically but not necessarily isfolded and rotated 90° between passes through the calender. The numberof folds and gap settings can be adjusted to yield the desiredproperties of the resultant sheet. As the calendering is repeated, thetensile strength reaches a maximum beyond which additional calenderingbecomes deleterious. Calendering generally is stopped after the maximumtensile strength is reached and before the tensile strength deterioratesbelow the minimum acceptable tensile strength. Generally, about 10 toabout 20 passes through the calendering rolls are appropriate. Once aweb of the desired thickness has been obtained, it can be air-dried atroom temperature or placed in a convection oven at an appropriatetemperature in order to remove excess inert fluid. Webs preferably havea final thickness in the range of 0.1 to 1.0 mm, more preferably 0.2 to0.5 mm, and even more preferably in the range of 0.25. to 0.4 mm.

The resultant electrode backing layer preferably has a tensile strengthof at least about 1 megapascals and more preferably at least about 3megapascals. The sheets are substantially uniformly porous withparticles generally uniformly distributed in a polymer fibril matrix.Almost all of the particles are separated from each other yet theparticles remain in sufficient proximity such that good electricalconductivity is obtained.

C. Additional Processing

It has been discovered that the performance characteristics ofparticle-loaded electrode backing layers, especially those produced withthe TIPT process, can be significantly improved by additional processingonce the polymer films are formed. First, the polymer electrode backinglayer can be heated to a temperature near the melting point of thepolymer matrix. The temperature preferably is in the range from about20° C. above to about 20° C. below the melting point of the polymermatrix, more preferably at a temperature between the melting point and10° C. above the melting point.

Preferably, the heating is performed for a period of time to heat thepolymer electrode up to the target temperature and for polymer flow tooccur. For laboratory evaluation, a period of about 10 minutes issufficient to ensure that the film has equilibrated at the temperatureof the oven and for polymer flow to occur. This period of timeaccommodates the inevitable loss of heat from an oven and time for theoven to equilibrate at its set point. For continuous in-line processing,much shorter residence times may be sufficient to allow enough time forheating to the target temperature and for polymer flow to occur.Surprisingly, this heating does not destroy the porosity of the film,even with the film being unrestrained during heating. This heating stepsignificantly reduces the electrical resistance in the electrode backinglayer while decreasing the Gurley and increasing the bubble point value.

In addition, the electrode backing layers can be stretched. Depending onthe polymer, stretching generally can be carried out effectively at atemperature from room temperature to about 20° C. below the meltingpoint of the polymer, as determined by DSC. For highly particle filledfilms, stretching is preferably carried out after extraction of thediluent at temperatures within plus or minus 20 degrees C. of themelting point of the polymer, as determined by DSC. Temperatures in thisrange would normally result in loss of porousity for unfilled films withthe diluent extracted. While films normally are stretched afterextraction of the diluent, it is also possible to stretch the films withthe diluent present, in which case porosity may or may not develop.

For small scale evaluation work, a machine such as those made by T.M.Long Co. (Sommerville, N.J.) can be used. The film is inserted into themachine at the desired temperature and gripped by all four edges suchthat the film can be stretched in one direction (uniaxial) of bothdirections (biaxial). Biaxial stretching can be performed sequentiallyor simultaneously. For in-line processing, film can be stretchedlengthwise using a device having a series of rollers that can be set torotate at increasingly higher rpm. Stretching in the width direction canbe accomplished by a device referred to as a tenter. A tenter can haveseveral zones that can be heated to a desired temperature. Moving gripsthat ride on a rail through the tenter grab the film by the edges. Thespacing between the two sets of grips on either side of the tenter canbe increased as the film moves through the tenter to accomplish thedesired degree of stretching. Available in-line equipment can besimultaneous biaxial stretching.

In general, bubble point increases and Gurley value decreases as thestretch ratio (the ratio of final film dimension to initial filmdimension) increases, although an extremum frequently is reached suchthat higher stretch ratios result in a lower bubble point and higherGurley value. The thickness of the film generally is reduced bystretching. In the case of conductive carbon particle-filled porousfilms, stretching has similar effects on bubble point and Gurley valueas with unfilled films but also tends to increase the resistivity of thefilm. Careful optimization is needed to balance suitably the bubblepoint, Gurley value and resistivity. In contrast, stretching tends toreduce the resistivity of porous films loaded with metallic particlessuch as tungsten. Unstretched films containing high loadings of tungstenhave high resistivity, which decreases as the stretch ratio isincreased.

D. MEA Formation

The catalytic, electrode layer generally is formed as an integral partof either the ion conducting membrane or the electrode backing layer. Ineither case, an electrode backing layer is placed on each side of theion conduction membrane with a catalyst layer between each electrodebacking layer and ion conducting membrane to form the 5-layer MEA. Theelectrode backing layers and the ion conducting membrane must be heldclosely together in order to reduce resistance to ionic and/orelectrical flow between the elements.

The elements can be held together by stack pressure, generally with acontainer ultimately applying the pressure. Preferably, the elements arelaminated together. Lamination supplies the physical proximity, as analternative to stack pressure. Surprisingly, the lamination step can beperformed with particle-filled, porous polymer components withoutdestroying the porous characteristic or structural integrity of theelements.

The lamination step should form cohesive association between the fivelayers of the NEA. Selection of appropriate conditions for thelamination is based on the specific materials used. Particular examplesare described below in the Examples. Lamination conditions should notcompromise membrane properties such as porosity, surface wetting andelectrical resistance.

The objective of the lamination is to eliminate the physical gap betweenthe layers. Cohesion or self-adhesion of polymers of the differentlayers can be promoted by increasing the total area of contact, thusincreasing the probability of diffusional interlacing of polymer chainsat the areas of contact. Some preferred polymer components describedabove are more compressible than typical polymer films. Increasedcompressibility makes pressure more effective in increasing contactarea. Evidently, the particulate filler in the polymer, electrodebacking layer helps to inhibit the collapse of the pores during thelamination.

Lamination can be accomplished in a variety of ways. These approachesinclude the use of heat lamination, pressure lamination or solventlamination. Heat lamination and solvent lamination also can involve someaddition of pressure. The appropriate methods for lamination depend onthe materials.

Continuous roll processing of the MEA greatly enhances the efficiency offuel cell production. For example, the 5-layer MEA is fabricated as acontinuous web 200 of identical repeating MEAs 202, i.e., as illustratedin FIG. 3. On the continuous web of MEAs 200, catalyst electrode areas204, including catalyst layers 206 and electrode backing layers 208, canbe applied patch-wise or continuously on each side to ion conductionmembrane 210, supplied in roll form. Similarly, appropriate seals andgaskets 212, defined by the mating surfaces of the bi-polar plates, canbe applied at the appropriate locations on roll membrane 210 adjacentcatalyst electrode areas 204. Holes 214 are punched at appropriatelocations at the center of seals or gaskets 216. The boundary betweenadjacent MEAs can be indicated for cutting or partially perforated forfast and easy separation during the stack assembly process. In addition,registration marks can be applied at the appropriate spots to facilitaterobotic pick-up and alignment during the stack assembly process.

If catalyst layer 206 is associated with electrode backing layer 208,the combined layers can be attached or laminated to ion conductionmembrane 210. Alternatively, catalyst layer 206 and electrode backinglayer 208 can be associated with membrane 210 sequentially. Suitablemethods for attaching or applying catalyst layer 206 to ion conductionmembrane 210 depends on the type of catalyst layer 206. For dispersionsof carbon particle supported catalysts, methods such as those taught inU.S. Pat. No. 5,211,984, incorporated herein by reference, using heatand pressure can be used. Nanostructured catalyst layers as taught inU.S. Pat. No. 5,338,430 can be embedded in the surface of membrane 210using nip-roll calendering or rapid static pressing of a continuous rollsupply of the nanostructured catalyst into a continuous roll supply ofmembrane 210. The catalyst can be applied in a patch-wise fashion from acontinuous roll carrier holding the catalyst in the desired pattern.

Electrode backing layers 208 then can be applied in registry withcatalyst electrode area 204 of ion conduction membrane 210 in apatch-wise fashion. Electrode backing layers 208 and catalyst layer 206can also be applied in a continuous roll supply rather than inpatch-wise fashion. Various attachment methods can be used for securingthe electrode backing layers 208 prior to stack assembly. Suitableattachment methods for electrode backing layer 208 include pressurelamination, heated nip-roll lamination, limited area adhesive attachment(to avoid blocking all pores with adhesive), ultrasonic welding,microstructured surface mechanical attachment and the like. A securebonding of electrode backing layer 208 with membrane 210 generally isdesirable to minimize electrical and/or ionic resistivities across theinterface between them, or to facilitate water management at theinterface, especially the cathode interface. The parameters of theattachment process can be adjusted to provide the preferred degree ofbonding. More secure bonding is especially desirable when catalyst layer206 is applied first to electrode backing layer 208. Importantrequirements for the attachment methods are that the gas transportproperties of electrode backing layers 208 are not adversely affected,that catalyst layers 206 are not poisoned and that ion conductionproperties of the membrane 210 are not degraded.

Seals and gaskets 212, 216 can be fabricated or die-cut from anysuitable laminar web material, such as Teflon™ sheeting or Teflon™coated fiberglass sheeting available from The Furon Co., CHR Division(New Haven, Conn.) or other fluoroelastomers. The seal material can beapplied to perimeter seal points 212 or gas port edges 216 of MEA roll200. Attachment of the seals and gaskets to the membrane at those pointscan be done using attachment methods similar to those described abovefor attaching the electrode backing layers. In addition to thenon-adhesive, laminar web seal materials, appropriate transfer adhesivesalso can be used. An example of such a transfer adhesive is #9485 PCadhesive available from 3M Co. (Saint Paul, Minn.).

The seals and gaskets materials and corresponding adhesives should notcontain chemicals that can be extracted by the ion conduction membraneto lower its conductivity or poison the catalyst. Also, the seals andgaskets materials should be chemically and thermally inert to withstandthe acidic environment (for proton exchange fuel cells) and operatingtemperatures of the fuel cell for thousands of hours. Furthermore, sealsand gaskets 112, 116 should have adequate mechanical properties to havehigh resistance to creep and extrusion at the maximum operatingtemperatures of the stack under stack-applied compressive forces in thedirection normal to the seal areas and under forces acting in the planeof the seals generated by internal pressure.

E. Stack Formation

A typical fuel cell stack may require more than a hundred cells to beassembled in series to obtain useful voltages. A hundred cells inseries, each operating at a nominal 0.7 volts, would yield a 70 voltstack. Assembly of the MEAs and bi-polar/cooling plates with all theattendant gaskets and seals to produce a leak free, optimally compressedfuel cell stack can be a critical issue for reducing the cost of thestack. Providing the MEAs, seals and gaskets in a manufacture-readyformat to facilitate cost effective assembly of a stack is an importantissue. For example, to assemble only 10,000 fuel cell stacks per shiftper production line per year requires one stack with hundreds ofassociated cell components to be assembled approximately every 10minutes. Producing and handling such a large number of components, eachsized, cut, oriented: and held in proper registry, in such a short timeis a significant consideration.

In a fuel cell stack 300, each individual cell consists of a 5-layer MEA302 that is sandwiched between bi-polar plates 304, as shown in FIG. 4.End plates 306 provide for flow of fuel and oxidizing agent into and outfrom fuel cell stack 300. The bi-polar plates function to a) provide theseries connection between cells by conducting the total electricalcurrent produced by an MEA to the adjacent cell for eventualtransmission at the end plates, b) prevent any gas transport betweenadjacent cells, c) provide mechanical rigidity to the assembled stacksuch that compressive forces are effective to minimize leakage of gasespast the perimeter of the MEAs, d) provide flow field grooves and gasmanifold ports for introducing the fuel and oxidant to the MEA catalystelectrodes and for removal of by-products such as water and e) providecontact with cooling fluids to extract waste heat from the cellelectrode areas.

Although there can be many possible configurations and shapes for fuelcell stacks, generally they are rectilinear or cylindrical in shape sothat the individual planar MEAs and bi-polar plates within each cellhave a corresponding rectangular or circular shape. U.S. Pat. No.5,252,410, incorporated herein by reference, teaches many aspects ofbi-polar plates and stack assemblies including specific aspects for thecase in which the catalyst is applied to the electrode backing layer.The active, catalyzed area of each MEA generally is smaller than themembrane area and can be centered on the MEA. The perimeter area of themembrane bordering the electrode area generally is used for sealing theMEA to the bi-polar plates, to prevent leakage of fuel and oxidant fromthe pressurized interior of the cell. Compressive forces applied fromthe end plates of the stack should be sufficient to keep the gaskets orseals from delaminating at the maximum internal pressures. The region ofthe MEA adjacent to the electrode area may also contain holes fortransmission of fuel and oxidant to the cells from the respective gassupply manifolds. These holes (i.e., gas ports) also may require sealsor gaskets to prevent leakage.

Above, a process is described for fabricating MEA's and supplying theMEAs with appropriate seals and gaskets in a continuous web format. Thecontinuous web format is extremely well suited for producing andhandling the large number of MEA elements used to construct the fuelcells at a cost effective rate. The continuous web is not only wellsuited for relatively rapid application to a bi-polar plate but also foraccurate alignment of the MEA. Therefore, the electrode backing layersas described herein when adapted to the production of a 5-layer MEA in acontinuous roll format yield dramatic advances in fuel cell processing.

EXAMPLES

Several properties are measured for the various electrode backing layersproduced in the following examples. Bubble point is the largest poresize in the film as determined according to ASTM F-316-80. Ethanol wasused as the test liquid. The liquid is used to fill the pores of thefilm. Pressure is applied until flow as bubbles takes place through thelargest passageway through the film. The bubbles are observed from atube that is connected to the low pressure side of the test cell andthat is submerged in water. The necessary pressure depends on thesurface tension of the test liquid and the size of the largestpassageway. Bubble point in microns, using ethanol as the test liquid,is equal to 9.25/pressure in psi at breakthrough.

Gurley value is a measure of resistance of air flow through a film.Specifically, it is a measurement of the time in seconds for 100 cc (orother selected volume) of air to pass through one square inch of a filmat a pressure of 124 mm of water, according to ASTM D-726-58, Method A.The film sample is clamped between two plates. Then, a cylinder isreleased that provides air to the sample at the specified pressure. Thetime for a given amount of air flow is determined from the marks on thecylinder, which are read electronically. In the Examples, Gurley valuesare reported for passage of 50 cc or 10 cc of air.

The in-plane electrical resistance is measured using two, 1.5 cm widealuminum bars that are placed parallel to each other on the surface ofthe film. Weights were placed on top of the bars to give a pressure of300 g/cm². The results generally are pressure dependent. The resistancebetween the two aluminum bars was measured using a standard ohm meter.Alternatively, z-axis electric resistance was measured at high currentdensities, as described in Example 6, below. The resistivity in ohm-cmwas calculated using the following equation:

resistivity=(z-axis resistivity×area of film/thickness of film)

or

resistivity=(in-plane resistance×width of the film×filmthickness)/distance between bars

The aqueous contact angle measurements described below were performedessentially as described in WO 96/344697. Briefly, using a commercialapparatus (Rame'-Hart contact Angle Goniometer, Model 100), anapproximately 1 microliter droplet was expressed out a hypodermicsyringe. Carefully raising the sample surface to just contact thedroplet while still suspended from the syringe defined the “equilibriumcontact angle”. The droplet was then enlarged or shrunk while measuringthe contact angle to obtain the advancing and receding contact angles,respectively. Multiple measurements were made and the mean and rmsdeviation obtained for both types of contact angles at multiple pointson the surface. Membranes exhibiting a higher receding contact anglerepel water to a greater extent that those exhibiting a lower recedingcontact angle. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believedthat membranes that repel water to a greater extent are less likely tobe flooded during the operation of a fuel cell, and will allow betterflow of fuel and oxidant to the membrane/catalyst interface.

In the Examples:

“room temperature” or “ambient temperature” is taken as approximately22° C;

Vertrel 423™ is dichlorotrifluoroethane (CHCl₂CF₃), from DuPontChemicals, Inc., Wilmington, Del.; and

All other chemicals and reagents were obtained from Aldrich ChemicalCo., Milwaukee, Wis., unless otherwise specified.

There are a number of basic processes and materials in common within theexamples. These include the preparation of the nanostructured catalystsupport, application of the catalyst to the support, determination ofthe catalyst loading, fabrication of the membrane-electrode assembly,the type of fuel cell apparatus and testing station, the fuel cell testparameters, and the kinds of proton exchange membranes used. These aredefined in general as follows:

a) Nanostructured catalyst support preparation and catalyst deposition.In the following examples, the nanostructured catalyst electrodes andthe process for making them are as described U.S. Pat. No. 5,338,430 andother patents referenced therein. The nanostructured catalyst consistsof catalyst materials, e.g. Pt coated onto the outer surface ofnanometer sized whisker-like supports. The whiskers are produced byvacuum annealing thin films (1000-1500 Angstroms) of an organic pigmentmaterial (C.I. Pigment Red 149, or PR149) previously vacuum coated ontosubstrates such as polyimide. The whisker-like supports, with lengths of1-2 micrometers, grow with uniform cross-sectional dimensions of 30-60nanometers, end-oriented on a substrate to form a dense film of closelyspaced supports (30-40 per square micrometer) which can be transferredto the surface of a polymer electrolyte to form the catalyst electrode.The nanostructured catalyst electrode has a very high surface area whichis readily accessible to fuel and oxidant gases.

b) Measurement of the catalyst loading is done both by monitoring thethickness of the Pt layer deposited during vacuum coating using a quartzcrystal oscillator, as is well known in the art of vacuum coating, andby a simple gravimetric method. In the later case, a sample of thepolyimide supported nanostructured film layer is massed using a digitalbalance accurate to 1 microgram, and its area measured. Then thenanostructured layer is wiped off the polyimide substrate using a papertissue or linen cloth, and the substrate is remassed. Because apreferred property of the catalyst support is that it transfer easilyand completely to the ion exchange membrane, it also can be easilyremoved by simple wiping with a cloth. The mass per unit area of thecatalyst support particles, without Pt, can also be measured this way.

c) The ion exchange membranes used were all of the perfluorinatedsulfonic acid type. Nafion™ 117 or 115 membranes were obtained fromDuPont Corp., Wilmington, Del.

d) The process used for transferring the catalyst coated supportparticles into the surface of the PEM or DCC was a static pressing or acontinuous nip-rolling method. To prepare an MEA with e.g. the catalyston the PEM, with 5 cm² of active area by the static pressing method, two5 cm² square pieces of the nanostructured catalyst, coated on ametallized polyimide substrate, one for the anode, one for the cathode,are placed on either side of the center of a 7.6 cm×7.6 cm protonexchange membrane. At least one 25 or 50 micrometer thick sheet ofpolyimide, of the same size as the PEM, is placed on each side of thePEM and nanostructured substrate stock to form a stack. For staticpressing, one sheet of 50 micrometers thick Teflon™, of the same size asthe PEM, is placed on each side of the PEM, nanostructured substrate andpolyimide stack.

For static pressing, this assembly is then placed between two steel shimplates, and pressed at a temperature near 130° C. and pressuresapproaching 10 tons/cm² for up to two minutes, using a nine inch Carver™press. A low grade vacuum may be applied to partially remove air (2Torr) from the stack just prior to applying the maximum pressure. Beforereleasing stack pressure, the stack can be cooled usually for 5 minutesor less to near room temperature. The original 5 cm² polyimidesubstrates are then peeled away from the PEM leaving the catalystattached to the surface of the PEM. (Alternatively the catalyst supportparticles can be transferred to the PEM or electrode backing bycontinuous toll processes such as passing the above sandwich assembliesin continuous or semi-continuous sheet form through the nip of a mil asin calendering or laminating processes. The two mill rolls can beheated, both made of steel, or steel and a softer material such asrubber, have a controlled gap or use controlled line pressure (kg/cm) todetermine the gap of the nip.

e) The MEA's from step d) were mounted in a fuel cell test cellpurchased from Fuel Cell Technologies, Inc., Albuquerque, N. Mex.,generally a 5 cm², but up to 50 cm², sized cell. Two pieces of 0.015″thick ELAT electrode backing material, obtained from E-tek, Inc.,Natick, Mass. was used as control electrode backing material. Tefloncoated fiberglass gaskets, purchased from CHR Industries, nominally 250micrometers thick, with 10 cm² square holes cut in the center (for the10 cm² catalyst area), were used to seal the cell. The ELAT electrodebacking material is designated as carbon only, i.e. it contains nocatalyst.

f) The test parameters for the fuel cell polarization curves of examples9-14 and 28, were obtained under the conditions of 207 kPa H₂ and 414kPa oxygen gauge pressures with a cell temperature of 80° C., flow ratesof approximately one standard liter per minute. The humidification ofthe gas streams was provided by passing the gas through sparge bottlesmaintained at 115° C. and 80° C. respectively for the hydrogen andoxygen.

For examples 15-17, polarization curves were obtained to test the lowpressure air performance of the electrode backing materials. The curvesin FIG. 12 were obtained under the conditions of 207 kPa H₂ and 34.5 kPaair gauge pressures. The H₂/air flow rates were 400/400 sccm (standardcubic centimeters per minute) for 10 cm² MEAs, and 1 standard liters perminute (slm)/2 slm for the 50 cm² MEAs. The humidification of the gasstreams was provided by passing the gas through sparge bottlesmaintained at about 115° C. and 65° C., respectively, for the hydrogenand air. The cell temperature was 75° C. A membrane produced followingthe procedures described in Example 12 was also run under these fuelcell conditions. The results are plotted in FIG. 12 as Ex. 12 (air).

Example 1

Conductive Carbon in High Density Polyethylene

A dispersion of conductive carbon in mineral oil was prepared by wettingout 1032 g of Conductex™ 975 conductive carbon (Colombian Chemicals Co.,Atlanta, Ga.) into a mixture of 2054 g of mineral oil (Superla® WhiteMineral Oil No. 31, AMOCO, Chicago, Ill.) and 1032 g of dispersant, OLOA1200™ (Chevron Oil Co., San Francisco, Calif.) using a model 2500 HVdispersator (Premier Mill Corp., Reading, Pa.). Portions of the carbonand OLOA 1200 were added alternately to the mineral oil. As the carbonwas added, the viscosity increased and the dispersator rpm increasedaccordingly to a maximum of about 5000 rpm after all the carbon and OLOA1200 had been added.

The resultant dispersion was viscous and lumpy. It was then heated toabout 150° C. while continuing to mix with the dispersator to degas it.The viscosity decreased as the temperature increased; the dispersatorrate was reduced to 1100 rpm as the temperature increased. The mixturewas held at about 150° C. for 20 min. The dispersion became smootherwith continued mixing and heating. It was then allowed to cool to about60° C. while continuing to mix. The resulting mixture was passed througha 1.5 L horizontal mill (Premier Mill Corp.) containing an 80 vol. %charge of 1.3 m diameter chrome-steel beads. The horizontal mill wasoperated at a peripheral speed of 1800 fpm (54.9 meters/minute) and at athrough put rate of about 0.5 L/min.

The dispersion discharged from the horizontal mill was pumped at about60° C. into an injection port on the third zone of a Berstorff™co-rotating twin screw extruder (25 mm×825 mm, Berstorff Corp.,Charlotte, N.C.). HDPE (high density polyethylene, grade 1285, Fina Oil& Chemical Co., Houston, Tex.) was metered into the feed zone (zone 1)at a rate of 0.55 kg(1.20 lb.)/hr. and the above dispersion was pumpedin at a nominal rate of 69.1 cc/min. using a gear pump. The extruderprofile starting from the feed zone was 193, 254, 254, 204, 166, 160,166° C., the die temperature was 166° C., and the screw speed was 120rpm.

Film was extruded through an 20.32 cm (8 in.) die onto a patternedcasting wheel heated to 52° C. The wheel pattern had 45°, four-sidedpyramids that were 0.125 mm (5 mil) high at a density of 100 per 6.45sq. cm ( 1 square inch). The resultant film was 0.25 mm (10 mil) thickand the experimentally determined total film throughput rate was 4.53 kg(10.0 lb)/hr. Thus, the actual dispersion feed rate was 3.99 kg (8.8lb)/hr. From this and the known dispersion composition, the total carboncontent in the film after extraction of the oil was calculated to be64.7 wt. %.

Example 2 Extraction Using Vertrel 423™

Oil and OLOA 1200 were extracted from the film of Example 1 in threewashes by soaking a portion of the film measuring about 18 cm by 30 cmin about 1 L Vertrel 423™ solvent per wash for 10 minutes per wash. Ondrying at room temperature, film thickness was 0.0241 cm. Physicalproperties of the film are shown in Table 1.

Example 3 Extraction Using Toluene/Xylenes

Oil and OLOA 1200 were extracted from a portion of the film of Example 1as described in Example 2, using a 1:1 v/v mixture of toluene/xylenes.Physical properties of the dried film, measuring 0.023 cm thick, areshown in Table 1.

Example 4 Post-extraction Heating, Vertrel 423™ Extraction

A portion of the film prepared as described in Example 2 was hung in acirculating air oven for ten minutes at 130° C. On cooling, the filmmeasured 0.23 mm thick. Physical properties of the film, labeled“Example 4A”, are shown in Table 1.

Advancing and receding contact angles (water) for the film were 158° and107°, respectively.

Likewise, a portion of the film from Example 2 was heated in acirculating air oven for 10 minutes at 150° C. Physical properties ofthe film, labeled “Example 4B”, are shown in Table 1.

Example 5 Post-extraction Heating, Toluene/Xylenes Extraction

Films prepared as described in Example 3 was hung in a circulating airoven for ten minutes at 130° C. On cooling, the film measured 0.23 mmthick. Physical properties of the film, labeled “Example 5A”, are shownin Table 1.

Likewise, a portion of the film from Example 3 was heated in acirculating air oven for 10 minutes at 150° C. Physical properties ofthe film, labeled “Example 5B”, are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 X-Y Ex- Extraction Heated, Bubble Gurley no., resistivity* ampleSolvent ° C. Point, μm sec/50 cc ohm-cm 2 V¹ No 0.10 310 6.7 3 T/X² No —— 0.97 4A V 130 0.15 180 0.75 4B V 150 — — 0.67 5A T/X 130 0.14 105 0.535B T/X 150 — — 0.53 ¹Vertrel 423 ™ ²Toluene/Xylenes (1:1 v/v) *lowcurrent measurement between parallel aluminum bars with 0.5 kg/cm²applied pressure

As shown in Table 1, heating the film above the melting point of theHDPE binder (126° C., peak temperature by DSC) resulted in a significantdecrease in Gurley, a significant increase in bubble point, and asignificant decrease in resistivity.

Example 6 Film Impedance

The ability of carbon-loaded films of the invention to carry largecurrent densities, suitable for fuel cells, was demonstrated. Two 5 cm²square samples of the film from Example 4A (Vertrel 423™ extraction,130° C. heating) were mounted face-to-face in direct parallel contactwith one another in a fuel cell test fixture (2.24 cm×2.24 cm, Fuel CellTechnologies, Inc., Santa Fe, N. Mex.), ie., there was no interveningion conductive membrane between the samples. Masking frames of Teflon™impregnated fiberglass 0.015 cm thick were used between the test cellhalves as commonly used in actual fuel cell tests, to prevent crushingthe films to be examined. Cell bolts were torqued to 12.4 N-m (110in-lbs). High current levels were passed through the cell at variousvoltages to measure the impedance of the films under high currentdensity conditions. Results of these measurements are shown in FIG. 6,trace A. After measurements were taken, the combined thickness of thefilms was 0.042 cm. Resistivity of the films was measured as 0.57ohm-cm, comparable to the value shown in Table 1.

Example 7 Film Impedance

Films prepared in Example 5A (toluene/xylenes extraction, 130° C.heating) were examined as described in Example 6 to measure theirimpedance. Results are shown in FIG. 6, trace B. Measured resistivity ofthese films, having a combined thickness of 0.042 cm, was 0.52 ohm-cm.

Example 8 (Comparative) Film Impedance

The resistivity of a carbon-only material (woven graphite clothimpregnated/coated with carbon black/PTFE) commercially available asELAT™ (Etek, Inc., Natick, Mass.) was examined as described in Example6. Results are shown in FIG. 6, trace C. Combined thickness of the ELA™films was 0.094 cm, giving an effective bulk resistivity of 0.28 ohm-cm.The Gurley value of the ELAT™ material was measured to be 7.5 sec/50 cc,and the advancing and receding contact angles of the film were 155° and133°, respectively.

Example 9 Membrane Electrode Assembly

A proton exchange membrane electrode assembly (MEA) was prepared byapplying an electrode layer comprising platinum-coated nanostructuredsupports, as described in U. S. Pat. No. 5,338,430, the teachings ofwhich are incorporated herein by reference, to the central portion of a7.6 cm×7.6 cm square Nafion™ 117 ion exchange membrane (DuPont ChemicalsCo., Wilmington, Del.). The platinum-coated nanostructured supports wereapplied to both sides of the ion exchange membrane using a hot platenpress as described in Example 5 of the above-incorporated '430 patent.The centered electrode area was 5 cm². Two 5 cm² pieces of thecarbon-filled electrode backing layer formed as described above inExample 5A (toluene/xylenes extraction, 130° C. heating) were placed oneither side of the electrode assembly, to form a 5-layer MEA. Theassembly was mounted in a 5 cm² test cell and tested on a fuel cell teststation (Fuel Cell Technologies, Inc.), using hydrogen/oxygen gas flowsapplied to respective sides of the assembly. FIG. 7, trace A, shows apolarization curve of voltage vs. current density produced with thisassembly.

Example 10 Membrane Electrode Assembly

A membrane electrode assembly was prepared as described in Example 9except that an electrode backing layer as described in Example 3(toluene/xylene extraction, no heating) was used. In addition, theentire assembly comprised 50 cm² electrodes and electrode backingmembranes, rather than 5 cm. FIG. 7, trace C, shows a polarization curveof voltage vs. current density produced by this assembly. The improvedperformance of this cell can be attributed, in part, to the largerelectrode size.

Example 11 (Comparative) Membrane Electrode Assembly

A membrane electrode assembly was prepared as described in Example 9except that the ELAT™ material described in Example 8 was used as theelectrode backing layer. FIG. 7, trace B, shows a polarization curve ofvoltage vs. current density produced by this assembly.

Examples 9-11 show that an effective electrode backing layer of theinvention can be prepared by the TIPT method. A premium gradecommerically-available membrane provided better fuel cell performance,perhaps due, in part, to a lower Gurley value and a higher recedingcontact angle. A lower Gurley value and a higher receding contact anglemay be indicative of higher diffusion of hydrogen and oxygen to thecatalyst/electrolyte interface and lesser susceptibility to floodingwith water produced at the cathode, which would further limit oxygentransport.

Example 12 Graphite/Conductive Carbon (95/5) in Ultrahigh MolecularWeight Polyethylene (TIPT)

A dry blend of 37.11 g MCMB 6-28 graphite (nominally 6 μmean diameter,Osaka Gas Chemical Co., Osaka, Japan) and 1.91 g Super P conductivecarbon (M Carbon Div:, MMM nv, Brussels, Belgium) was prepared using aspatula for mixing. Portions of this mixture and portions of 32.2 gmineral oil (Superla® White Mineral Oil No. 31) were added alternatelyto the mixing chamber of a Haake Rheocord™ System 9000 (Haake (USA),Paramus, N.J.) equipped with roller blades. The mixing chamber was at60° C., while mixing at 50 rpm. Then, heating to a set point of 150° C.was begun.

When the mix temperature reached 120° C., 2.06 g of ultrahigh molecularweight polyethylene (UHMWPE, grade GUR 4132, Hoechst Celanese Corp.,Houston, Tex.) was added in portions with time allowed between additionsfor the previous material to be assimilated. The ratio of UHMWPE/oil was6/94. After this addition was completed, the temperature of the chamberwas increased to 150° C., and the mixing rate was increased to 80 rpm.Mixing was continued for 10 min. after the addition of the UHMWPE hadbeen completed. The mixture was removed from the mixer while still hot.

After cooling, 15 g of solidified mixture was placed between 0.175 mm (7mil) polyester sheets and placed in a Model 2518 Carver™ press (Fred S.Carver Co., Wabash, Ind.) at 160° C. with 0.25 mm (10 mil) shims placedbetween the polyester sheets. After heating in the press for 3 min. withno applied pressure, the mixture was pressed for 10 sec. using 690 kPa(100 psi). The resultant film with polyester sheets still attached wasimmersed into water at ambient temperature to quench it. The oil wasextracted from the film as described in Example 2. A portion of the filmwas heated at 130° C. for 10 min. in a circulating air oven, asdescribed in Example 4. Physical properties of the film are shown inTable 2. Advancing and receding contact angles (water) for the film were154°±10 and 101°±5, respectively.

TABLE 2 After Washing/ Drying, Before After Heating for 10 ParameterHeating min. at 130° C. Caliper, mm 0.215 0.215 Gurley (sec./50 cc) 9560 Bubble Point (microns) 0.23 — Resistivity (ohm-cm) 7.3 4.6

Curve A in FIG. 8 shows a representative polarization curve from a fuelcell test using a 50 cm² cathode backing layer made after heating, asdescribed in this example. The same catalyst coated ion conductionmembrane was used to obtain the fuel cell polarization curves for the5-layer MEAs using different electrode backing layers of Examples 12-14and the ELAT™ control (curve “D” in FIG. 8). After testing one sampleelectrode backing layer, the test cell was opened, and the electrodebacking layer replaced on the cathode with the next one. The ELAT™ anodebacking layer remained unchanged.

Example 13 Graphite/Conductive Carbon (95/5) in Polypropylene (TIPT)

A mixture of MCMB 6-28 graphite and mineral oil (Superla® White MineralOil No. 31) was prepared by mixing 83.3 g of graphite into 91.9 g ofmineral oil using a dispersator. Super P conductive carbon, 1.53 g, waspoured into the mixing chamber of a Haake Rheocord™ System 9000 mixerequipped with roller blades at 100° C. Then, while mixing at 50 rpm,59.73 g of the graphite/mineral oil mixture was poured into the mixingchamber. As the viscosity increased during the addition of thegraphite/mineral oil mixture, the mixing rate was increased to 100 rpm.Then, 7.66 g of polypropylene (grade DS5D45 from Shell Chemicals,Houston, Tex.) were added. The mixture was heated to 230° C. over aperiod of about 10 min. Total mixing time after addition ofpolypropylene was about 33 min. The resultant mixture was removed fromthe mixer while hot.

After cooling, 14.2 g of the solidified mixture was placed between 0.175mm (7 mil) polyester sheets, which had been coated with a thin coatingof mineral oil to facilitate release, and placed in a Carver press at160° C. with 0.25 mm (10 mil) shims placed between the polyester sheets.After heating in the press for 3 min. with no applied pressure, themixture was pressed for 10 sec. using 345 kPa (50 psi). The resultantfilm with polyester sheets still attached was immersed in water atambient temperature to quench it. Oil was extracted from the film asdescribed in Example 2. A portion of the film was heated in acirculating air oven for 10 min. at 180° C. Physical properties of thefilm before and after heating are shown in Table 3. It was noted thatthe film became somewhat brittle after this heating procedure. Advancingand receding contact angles (water) for the film were 155°±5 and 100±5°,respectively.

TABLE 3 After Washing/ Drying, Before After Heating for 10 ParameterHeating min. at 180° C. Caliper (mm) 0.205 0.200 Gurley (sec./50 cc) 32— Bubble Point (microns) 0.66 — Resistivity (ohm-cm) 8.96 1.5

Trace B in FIG. 8 shows a representative polarization curve with thecathode electrode backing layer made from the heated film. It displaysan improved performance relative to the sample from Example 12.

Example 14 Graphite/Conductive Carbon (95/5) in Ultrahigh MolecularWeight Polyethylene (TIPT)

A dry blend of 27.89 g MCMB 6-28 graphite, and 1.47 g Super P conductivecarbon, was prepared using a spatula for mixing. Portions of thismixture and portions of 37.1 g mineral oil (Superla™ White Mineral OilNo. 31) were added alternately to the mixing chamber of a HaakeRheocord™ System 9000 mixer equipped with roller blades at 40° C. whilemixing at 50 rpm. Then, 1.55 g of UHMWPE (grade GUR 4132, HoechstCelanese Corp.) were added. The ratio of UHMWPE/oil was 4/96. Afteraddition of the polymer was completed, the temperature of the chamberwas increased to 150° C., and the rpm were increased to 80. Mixing wascontinued for 10 min. after the addition of the UHMWPE had beencompleted. The mixture was removed from the mixer while still hot.

After cooling, 13.1 g of the solidified mixture was placed between 0.175mm (7 mil) polyester sheets and placed in a Carver press at 160° C. with10 mil shims placed between the polyester sheets. After heating in thepress for 3 min. with no applied pressure, the mixture was pressed for10 sec. using 345 kPa (50 psi). The resultant film with polyester sheetsstill attached was immersed into water at ambient temperature to quenchit. The oil was extracted from the film as described in Example 2. Aportion of the film was heated at 130° C. for 10 min. in a circulatingair oven, as described in Example 4. The peak melting point of theUHMWPE was 138° C. as determined by DSC. Physical properties of the filmare shown in Table 4. Advancing and receding contact angles (water) forthe film were 139°±10 and 79°±9, respectively.

TABLE 4 After Washing/ Drying, Before After Heating for 10 ParameterHeating min. at 130° C. Caliper (mm) 0.150 0.150 Gurley (sec./50 cc)36.8 19.6 Bubble Point (microns) 0.93 0.60 Resistivity (ohm-cm) 36 9.7

Trace C in FIG. 8 displays a representative polarization curve with acathode electrode backing layer made from the heated film. Furtherimprovement is observed relative to Example 13. Trace D involves theELAT™ control.

In the following Examples 15A, 15B, 16A, 16B, 17B, 17C, 17D, 17E and17F, equivalent catalyst coated ion conduction membranes were used fortests of different types of cathode backing layers. Commercial ELAT™ wasused in each case as the anode backing layer. The fuel cell polarizationcurves for these examples are summarized in FIG. 12, and demonstrate theeffects of the different parameters tested under low pressure airoperation. The comparative control curve with ELAT™ as the cathodebacking layer is also shown in FIG. 12. Referring to FIG. 12, in theuseful voltage range of 0.6 volts and higher, the electrode backinglayer of Example 15A exceeds the performance of the ELAT™ membrane.

Example 15 Graphite/Conductive Carbon in Polyvinylidene Fluoride

A mixture of 91.37 g of MCMB 6-28 graphite in 96.18 g of propylenecarbonate was prepared by using a dispersator. Then, 1.60 g Super Pconductive carbon was added to the mixing chamber of a Haake Rheocord™System 9000 mixer at 50° C. and 50 rpm, followed by addition of 63.0 gof the above graphite-propylene carbonate mixture. While heating theresulting mixture to 150° C., 12.47 g Solef 10101™ polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF, Solvay America Inc., Houston, Tex.) was added inportions at a rate such that the added polymer was assimilated into themixture. When steady torque had been established (approximately 6minutes after commencing polymer addition), the temperature set pointwas changed to 120° C. and cooling commenced. After approximately 4minutes of cooling, stirring was stopped and the resulting mixtureremoved while hot.

After cooling, 12 g of solidified mixture was placed between two sheetsof polyimide film with 0.25 mm (10 mil) shims between the polyimidefilm, and placed in a Carver press at 150° C. After heating for 90 sec.with no applied pressure, the press was closed for 5 seconds using 1035kPa (150 psi). The resultant film with polyimide sheets still attachedwas placed between two 15 mm thick steel plates at 20° C. until the filmwas cool, after which the polyimide film was removed. The resultant PVDFfilm was washed and then dried as described in Example 2, except that3×1 L isopropyl alcohol washes were used to extract the propylenecarbonate to give sample 15A. A portion of the film was heated at 160°C. for 10 min. in a circulating air oven, as described in Example 4 togive sample 15B. Physical properties of the film are shown in Table 5.The fuel cell polarization results are shown in FIG. 12.

TABLE 5 After Washing/ Drying, Before After Heating for 10 Heating (15A)min. at 160° C. (15B) Caliper, mm 0.241 0.230 Gurley (sec./50 cc) 57 39Resistivity (ohm-cm) 1.20 0.96 Advancing Contact Angle 143 ± 10° 141 ±8° Receeding Contact Angle  87 ± 12°  87 ± 8°

Example 16 Graphite/Super S Conductive Carbon (95/5) in High DensityPolyethylene (TIPT)

This example demonstrates useful performance at a much lower loading ofcarbon. This film was made using the extruder described in Example 1 andwas cast onto a smooth casting wheel (32° C. set point temperature).Film made this way has typically smaller pores on the wheel side than onthe air side.

A dispersion of SFG 15 graphite (Alusuisse Lonza America Inc., nowTimcal, Fair Lawn, N.J.) was prepared by adding incrementally 1090 g ofSFG 15 to a mixture of 3030 g of mineral oil (Superla™ White Mineral OilNo.31) and 57.4 g of dispersant, OLOA 1200 using a Model 89 dispersatorfrom Premier Mill Corp. Then, 57.4 g of Super S conductive carbon MMMCarbon Div., MMM nv, Brussels, Belgium) was mixed into the graphitedispersion. The carbon/oil mixture was heated to 150° C. and held at150° C. for 30 min. while continuing to mix with the dispersator (rpmwere lowered as temperature increased). The mixture was cooled to 70° C.before being transferred to the feed tank of the extruder.

The carbon/oil mixture was pumped into an injection port on the thirdzone of a Berstorff™ co-rotating twin screw extruder (25 mm×825 mm).High density polyethylene (HDPE, grade 1285, Fina Oil & Chemical Co.)was metered into the feed zone (zone 1) at a rate of 0.61 kg(1.35lb)/hr., and the above mixture was pumped in at a nominal rate of 77cc/min. using a gear pump. The extruder profile starting from the feedzone was 199, 271, 271, 188, 188, 188, 188° C., the die temperature was188° C., and the screw speed was 125 rpm.

Film was extruded through an 20.32 cm (8 in.) die onto a smooth castingwheel at 32° C. A 50 micrometer polyester film was inserted on top ofthe film after quenching while still on the casting wheel to aid in filmhandling by preventing slippage on the wheel. The resultant extrudedfilm was 0.3 mm (12 mil) thick and the experimentally determined totalfilm throughput rate was 5.39 kg (11.9 lb.)/hr. Thus, the actualcarbon/oil mixture feed rate was 4.80 kg (10.6 lb.)/hr. From this andthe known compositions, the total carbon content in the film afterextraction of the oil was calculated to be 68.0 wt. %

The oil and OLOA 1200 were extracted from the film using three ×15 min.washes using Vertrel 423. About 1 L of solvent per wash was used for apiece of film that was about 17.8 cm (7″) wide by 30.5 cm (12″) long.The film was then hung in an exhaust hood to dry to give sample 16A. Apiece of this film was hung in a circulating air oven for 10 min. at130° C. to give sample 16B. As shown in Table 6, below, heating the filmabove the melting point of the HDPE used, 126° C., resulted in asignificant decrease in Gurley value, significant increase in bubblepoint, and significant decrease in resistivity. Physical properties ofthe film are shown in Table 6. Fuel cell polarization curves using thesemembranes are shown in FIG. 12. For both 16A and 16B, the casting wheelside of the film was toward the MEA. The photomicrographs of the castingwheel side, air side and cross sections of films 16A and 16B are shownin FIGS. 14 and 15, respectively. The SEM results show the differencesin pore size between the casting wheel and air sides of the films, andthe general enlargement of pore sizes throughout film 16B due toheating, as described.

TABLE 6 After Washing/ Drying, Before After Heating for 10 Heating (16A)min. at 130° C. (16B) Caliper, mm 0.285 0.274 Gurley (sec./50 cc) 24520.8 Bubble Point (microns) 0.38 1.16 Resistivity (ohm-cm) 71 1.45

Results given in Examples 17 and 18 below show that similar physicalproperties were obtained

1. by either heating the film above the melting point of the HDPE andthen stretching at a normal stretch temperature for porous HDPE (usuallyabout 180 to 220° F.), or

2. by stretching at a higher temperature that would normally result inloss of porosity of an unfilled HDPE in the membrane.

Example 17 Effect of Stretching and Heating on TIPT Membranes

Samples of the film prepared as described in Example 2 were variouslyheated and stretched as shown in Table 7. The film was stretched using afilm stretcher from T. M. Long Co., Somerville, N.J. After inserting thefilm into the stretcher at the indicated temperature, the film washeated for about 30 sec. before stretching. Stretching was performed inone direction or sequentially in both directions at about 2.54 cm/sec.After stretching, the films were annealed at the stretching temperaturefor about 2 min. before releasing the stretcher grips and removing thestretched film. In the Table, the degree of stretching is indicated interms of the ratio of final dimension divided by initial dimension: astretch ratio of 1.25×1 means that the film was stretched uniaxially by25% (12.7 cm final length, 10.2 cm initial length). 1.25×1.25 means thatthe film was stretched by 25% in both directions, sequentially.Simultaneous biaxial stretching in both directions is also possible.

TABLE 7 Bubble Stretch Stretch Caliper, Point, Gurley, Resistivity Ex.Treatment Ratio Temp., ° C. mm μm sec./50 cc ohm-cm 17A None — — 0.2160.095 426 5.5 17B Heat Only — — 0.225 0.13 210 1.0 17C Heat, then 1.25 ×1   87 0.218 0.19 116 1.3 Stretch 17D Stretch 1.25 × 1   134 0.175 0.4038 1.1 Only 17E Stretch 1.25 × 1.25 134 0.165 0.47 49 4.2 Only 17FStretch 1.5 × 1   134 0.18 0.41 47 2.4 Only

In the Table, Example 17A corresponds to a film as prepared in Example2, Example 17 B corresponds to a film as prepared in Example 3. ForExample 17C, the film from Example 17B was cooled from 130° C. to roomtemperature prior to stretching, and then heated in the T. M. Long Co.stretcher to 93° C. before stretching. For Examples 17D, 17E, and 17F, afilm prepared as in Example 2 was heated to the temperature shown inTable 7 in the T.M. Long Co. film stretcher and then stretched, withoutfirst heating to 130° C., as in the heat-only method.

In general, stretching increased bubble point, decreased the Gurleyvalue and increased the resistivity relative to untreated film (Example17A). While low resistivity is desirable, Examples 17C-17F demonstratethat gas flow through the film can be enhanced without unduly increasingresistivity. Example 17C showed that even a small amount of stretchingof a film that had been previously heated at 130° C. (Example 17B)provided a significant increase in bubble point and a significantdecrease in Gurley value while not significantly increasing theresistivity. Examples 17D-17F illustrate the effects of a single stepprocess of stretching the film from Example 17A at a higher temperaturethan the melting point of the polymer. Stretching at higher temperatureresulted in an even larger increase in bubble point and even largerdecrease in Gurley value. The change in resistivity varied with theamount of stretching from almost no change (Example 17D) to a moderatechange (Example 17E), and to a somewhat larger change (Example 17F).Advancing and receding contact angles (water) for the film were,respectively, (17D) 148°±6° and 95°±5°, (17E) 153°±4° and 98°±5°, and(17F) 156°±8° and 104°±4°. The results are unexpected, in that unfilledporous films heated at or near their melting point generally wouldcollapse and become a dense, nonporous films. Polarization curves forExample 17 are given in FIG. 12.

As shown in Example 18 below, as little as 20 volume % carbon relativeto the volume of HDPE in conjunction with a high loading of metallicparticles is sufficient to hinder densification of the membrane uponheating at 130° C. The peak melting temperature of the HDPE was 126° C.as determined by DSC. Example 18 also shows that useful TIPT films canbe prepared using conductive metal particles in conjunction withconductive carbon particles.

Example 18 TIPT Films Loaded with Non-Carbon Conductive Particles

Example 18A: A dispersion was prepared by wetting out 11,574 g oftungsten powder having a primary particle size of 0.5 μm (Teledyne WahChang, Huntsville, Ala.) in 2576 g of mineral oil (Superla™ WhiteMineral Oil No. 31) and 359 g of OLOA 1200 using a dispersator having a2 in. sawtooth disc head (Premier Mill Corp.). The resultant mixture wasthen milled by recirculating this mixture through a 0.25 L horizontalmill (Premier Mill Corp.) that contained a 50 vol. % charge of 1.3 mmsteel beads, for 2 hr. The resultant dispersion was then filteredthrough a 20 micron rope-wound filter that had been pre-wet with oil. Aniterative series of density checks followed by oil additions wasperformed to adjust the density until the desired target density of3.6358 was reached.

As described in Example 1, this dispersion was pumped at 59.6 ml/min.into an intermediate zone of a 25 mm twin screw operated at 90 rpm andHDPE (grade GM 9255 from Hoechst Celanese Corp., now available as grade1285 from Fina Oil & Chemical Co.) was gravimetrically metered into theextruder throat at 0.54 kg (1.2 lb)/hr. The film was cast orito a smoothcasting wheel maintained at 32° C. at about 0.225 mm thick. The oil wasextracted using three —15 min. washes of Vertrel 423™ and dried in anexhaust hood. The resultant film was evaluated after washing/drying andthen after heating for 10 min. at 130° C., as shown in Table 8. Thecalculated weight percent of tungsten in the dried film was 95.0.

Example 18B: A membrane similar to Example 18A was prepared that had thesame volume percent loading of particulate, 48.3 vol. %, except that thetotal particulate contained 73 volume % tungsten and 27 volume %conductive carbon. The total weight percent particulate in the finalmembrane was 93.5% of a 96.29/3.71 by weight mixture of tungsten andConductex 975™ conductive carbon (Colombian Chemicals Co.).

The dispersion was prepared by combining 2400 g of mineral oil (0.863g/cc) and 300 g of OLOA 1200 (0.92 g/cc). Then, 8880 g of tungsten(19.35 g/cc) was wetted out into this mixture using a dispersatorequipped with a 2 in. sawtooth disc head (Premier Mill Corp.). A 341 gquantity of Conductex 975 (2.0 g/cc) was added in portions. Heating wascommenced to lower the dispersion viscosity to facilitate wetting out ofthe carbon. The dispersion was then heated to 150° C. for 20 min. Thehot dispersion was recirculated for one hour through a 0.25 L horizontalmill operated at 3500 rpm. The mill contained an 80 vol. % charge of 1.3mm steel beads. The dispersion density was adjusted by adding moremineral oil until a final density of 2.8922 g/cc at 25° C. was reached.

As described in Example 1, the dispersion was pumped at 59.6 ml/min.into an intermediate zone of a 25 mm twin screw operated at 90 rpm andHDPE (grade GM 9255 from Hoechst Celanese Corp., now available as grade1285 from Fina Oil & Chemical Co.) was gravimetrically metered into theextruder throat at 0.54 kg (1.2 lb)/hr. The film was cast onto a smoothcasting wheel maintained at 32° C. at about 0.225 mm thick. The oil wasextracted using three —15 min. washes of Vertrel 423™ and dried in anexhaust hood. The resultant film was evaluated after washing/drying andthen after heating for 10 min. at 130° C., as shown in Table 8.

TABLE 8 Ex- Caliper, Bubble Gurley no., Resistivity, ample Treatment mmPoint, μm sec./50 cc ohm-cm 18A(1) None 0.24 0.27 135 >10⁶ 18A(2) 130°C./10 0.163 0.071 * >10⁶ min. 18B(1) None 0.173 0.10 317  101 18B(2)130° C./10 0.133 0.18 152  3.5 min. *Film broke in Gurley instrument

The data shown in Table 8 indicate that conductive particles other thancarbon can be used to prepare TIPT films useful in the invention if atleast a minor amount of conductive carbon is included in order toachieve acceptably low resistivity, decreased Gurley and increasedbubble point on heating the film.

Examples 19-27 Carbon-Loaded Porous PTFE Membranes—PF Process

In examples 19-27, the carbon loaded Teflon® (PTFE) media was preparedusing the general process taught, e.g., in U.S. Pat. No. 5,071,610,incorporated herein by reference. In brief, the porous, conductingTeflon® based membranes were prepared by hand mixing carbon particles, aliquid dispersant and PTFE powder to form a putty-like mass. Thematerial then was passed multiple times through a heated mill (Model4037, Reliable Rubber and Plastic Machinery Co. Inc., North Bergen,N.J.), with repeated folding and rotating of the sample and reductionsof the mill gap in between passes through the mill. The final membranesheet was then heated above the boiling point of the dispersant, in avented oven, to remove the dispersant.

The dispersant used in all the examples was Fluorinert™, FC-40(b.p.=155° C.) highly fluorinated electronic liquid, available from 3MCo., St. Paul, Minn. The use of a fluorinated dispersant in the PFprocess is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,113,860, incorporated herein byreference.

The Teflon® binder, provided in dry form, was PTFE type 6-C, (DuPontChemical Co., Wilmington, Del.). Carbon particles consisted of carbonblack material and/or carbon fibers. The carbon black material isidentified in each example.

Carbon fibers were obtained from Strem Chemicals Inc., Newburyport,Mass., catalog number 06-0140. The approximately 6 mm long×0.001 cmdiameter fibers were received bundled randomly together and had to bephysically dispersed prior to use. This was done by brushing the fiberbundles with a brass bristle brush to cause separated fibers to fallinto a USA Standard Testing Sieve (W.S. Tyler Inc., Mentor, Ohio), thenshaking on a sieve (100 mesh) shaker (W.S. Tyler Inc., Mentor, Ohio) forone hour. The individual carbon fibers then were blended with carbonblack and added to the Teflon® and Fluorinert mixture.

In the following examples, the Gurley, resistance, contact angles andfuel cell performance of several carbon/PTFE composite membranes arecompared to the ELAT™ PTFE/carbon material described in previousexamples.

Example 19 PTFE/Carbon Black (95%) Membrane

Five grams of carbon black(Vulcan XC72R, Cabot Corp., Waltham, Mass.,average particle diameter of 30 nm) were mixed with 0.263 g of PTFE and40 g of Fluorinert™ FC-40. The mixture was hand-kneaded and formed asdescribed above, into a porous, conducting membrane 0.38 mm thick. Themembrane was dried in a vented oven at 180° C. for one hour. Theresultant membrane, measuring approximately 37.5 cm×30 cm, wasapproximately 95% by weight carbon.

A Gurley value of 37 seconds per 10 cc was measured for the membrane(FIG. 9).

Example 20 Membrane Comprising PTFE and Carbon Black/Carbon Fiber (89/6)Mixture

A 4.7 gram portion of carbon black, type Vulcan XC72R, and 0.3 g ofcarbon fibers (Strem Chemicals Inc.) were mixed with 0.263 g of PTFE and40 g of Fluorinert™ FC-40. The mixture was hand kneaded and formed intoa porous, conducting membrane 0.38 mm thick. The membrane was dried in avented oven at 160° C. for one hour. It was then folded in half andpassed through the mill rolls to a thickness of 0.30 mm. The resultantmembrane, measuring approximately 37.5 cm×30 cm, was approximately 95%by weight total carbon; 89% carbon black and 6% carbon fibers.

The measured Gurley was 21.5 seconds per 10 cc (FIG. 9). The resistanceof two 5 cm² pieces of the membrane compressed to 0.51 cm thick,measured in the fuel cell test cell as described in Example 6, was 4.0milliohms, compared to 5.7 milliohms for two similar sized pieces ofELAT™ reference material. (FIG. 10) This corresponds to a bulkresistivity of 0.94 ohm-cm.

Example 21 Membrane Comprising PTFE and Carbon Black/Carbon ParticleMixture

A 3.0 gram portion of Vulcan XC72R carbon black and 2.0 g of Norit SX1carbon particles, average particle size of 32-75 μm (American Norit Co.Inc., Atlanta, Ga.) were mixed with 0.263 g of PTFE and 40 g ofFluorinert™ FC-40. The mixture was hand kneaded and formed into aporous, conducting membrane 0.36 mm thick, as described above. Themembrane was dried in a vented oven. The resultant membrane wasapproximately 95% by weight total carbon; 57% carbon black and 38%carbon particles.

The measured Gurley was 35 seconds per 10 cc (FIG. 9). The resistance oftwo 5 cm² pieces of the membrane compressed to 0.076 cm thick was 4.0milliohms (FIG. 10). This corresponds to a bulk resistivity of 0.26ohm-cm. The advancing and receding contact angles were measured to be153±4° and 113.7±1.6°, respectively.

For examples 22, 23, 26 and 27, the same catalyst coated ion conductingmembrane was used to obtain the fuel cell polarization curves for thedifferent electrode backing material samples. The testing was done byopening the cell after the completion of one test, removing theelectrode backing layer, and replacing them with the next electrodebacking layer. In FIG. 11 the order in which the samples were tested byreference to the particular example was: Example 22, Example 23, Example26, Example 27 followed by the ELAT control. Since the full performanceof the catalyzed Nafion 115 ion conduction membrane was obtained withthe last sample using the ELAT control, interchanging the electrodebacking layers did not damage the catalyzed membrane. As seen from theresistance and Gurley measurements for these examples in FIGS. 9 and 10,the significant differences in fuel cell performance cannot be due toresistance or just porosity. The current limited performance of thesample from Example 26, due to oxygen limited diffusion through acathode water flooding layer, is most likely associated with the lowerporosity (higher Gurley value) and much lower receding contact angle(107.5°) compared to the other examples in the series. These examplesdemonstrate that the wetting characteristics of the type of carbonparticle used is very important since it influences the receding contactangle.

Example 22 Membrane Comprising PTFE and Carbon Black/Carbon Fibers(87/8)

A 4.6 gram portion of Vulcan XC72R carbon black and 0.4 g of carbonfibers (Strem Chemicals Inc.) was mixed with 0.263 g of PTFE and 40 g ofFluorinert™ FC-40. The mixture was hand kneaded and formed into aporous, conducting membrane 0.28 mm thick. The membrane was dried in avented oven at 165° C. for two hours. The resultant membrane wasapproximately 95% by weight total carbon, 87% carbon black andapproximately 8% carbon fibers.

The measured Gurley was 2.1 seconds per 10 cc (FIG. 9). The resistanceof two 5 cm² pieces of the membrane compressed to 0.058 cm thick was 9.6milliohms (FIG. 10). This corresponds to a bulk resistivity of 0.82ohm-cm. The advancing and receding contact angles were respectivelymeasured to be 154±7° and 132±4°.

The fuel cell performance of the electrode backing layers prepared inthis example was measured using a Nafion™ 115 membrane-based 3-layer MEAwith nanostructured electrodes, as described in Example 9. FIG. 11 showsthe performance of this and other 5-layer MEAs of the invention, as wellas that of electrode backing layers prepared from ELAT™ referencematerial. The current density of membranes of this Example at 0.5 voltsis seen to be 0.7 A/cm². To obtain the fuel cell polarization curves inFIG. 11, the fuel cell was operated at a temperature of 80° C. with ahydrogen pressure of 207 Kpa, an oxygen pressure of 414 Kpa, and flowrates of 1 standard liter per minute, and the anode/cathodehumidification temperatures were 115° C. and 80° C., respectively.

Example 23 Membrane Comprising PTFE and Carbon Black/Carbon Fiber (78/7)

A 4.6 gram portion of Shawinigan C-55 carbon black, and 0.4 g of carbonfibers (Strem Chemicals Inc.) was mixed with 0.90 g of PTFE and 45 g ofFluorinert™ FC-40. The mixture was hand kneaded and formed into aporous, conducting membrane 0.41 mm thick. After drying in a ventedoven, the resultant membrane was approximately 85% by weight carbon; 78%carbon black and approximately 7% carbon fibers.

The measured Gurley was 6.2 seconds per 10 cc (FIG. 9). The resistanceof two 5 cm² pieces 0.058 cm thick of the membrane was 10.6 milliohms(FIG. 10). This corresponds to a bulk resistivity of 0.90 ohm-cm. Theadvancing and receding contact angles were respectively measured to be157±5° and 137±9°.

The fuel cell performance of the electrode backing layers prepared inthis example was measured as described above. The current density at 0.5volts was 0.95 A/cm².

Example 24 Membrane Comprising PTFE and Carbon Black (92%)

This membrane was prepared as described in Example 19, except the totalcarbon loading was 92% by weight Vulcan XC72R. The membrane thicknesswas 0.25 mm.

The measured Gurley was 24 seconds per 10 cc (FIG. 9), and the membraneresistance was 20.5 milliohms (FIG. 10). This corresponds to a bulkresistivity of 1.92 ohm-cm. The advancing and receding contact angleswere respectively measured to be 156±8° and 96±5°.

Example 25 Membrane Comprising PTFE and Carbon Black (95%)

This membrane was prepared with the same ingredients as in Example 19except a different thickness membrane was formed. The resultant membranewas approximately 95% by weight carbon black and 0.32 mm thick.

The measured Gurley was 73 seconds per 10 cc (FIG. 9), and the membraneresistance was 5.0 milliohms (FIG. 10), giving a bulk resistivity of0.39 ohm-cm.

Example 26 Membrane Comprising PTFE and Carbon Black (90%)

A 90 wt % carbon-containing membrane was prepared as described inExample 19 using KetJen-600J carbon black. The porous, conductingmembrane was 0.28 mm thick.

The measured Gurley was 27 seconds per 10 cc (FIG. 9), and theresistance of two 5 cm² pieces of the membrane was 5.0 milliohms (FIG.10), for a bulk resistivity of 0.48 ohm-cm. The advancing and recedingcontact angles were respectively measured to be 161±8.5° and 107.5±5°.

The fuel cell performance of the electrode backing layers prepared inthis example was measured as described above and shown in FIG. 11. Thecurrent density at 0.5 volts was 0.28 A/cm².

Example 27 Membrane Comprising PTFE and Carbon Black (85%)

An 85 wt % carbon-containing membrane was prepared as described inExample 19 using Shawingian C-55 carbon black. The porous, conductingmembrane was 0.39 mm thick.

The measured Gurley was 4.4 seconds per 10 cc (FIG. 9), and theresistance of two 5 cm² pieces of the membrane was 13.4 milliohms (FIG.10), for a bulk resistivity of 0.88 ohm-cm. The advancing and recedingcontact angles were respectively measured to be 157±7° and 141±12°.

The fuel cell performance of the electrode backing layers prepared inthis example was measured as described above and shown in FIG. 11.

Example 28 Effect of TIPT Film Asymmetry

The carbon-filled HDPE membrane described in example 16B (heat treated)was evaluated in a fuel cell under the same conditions as describedabove with respect to Examples 9-14 except that Nafion™ 115 was used forthe ion conduction membrane and the electrode backing layers wereextracted with Vertrel 423. In Example 28A the film was placed with theside of the film that was against a smooth casting wheel duringquenching facing away from the catalyzed membrane. In Example 28B thesame film was placed with the casting wheel side of the film facingtowards the catalyzed membrane. SEM photomicrographs of the castingwheel and air sides of film from 16B are shown in FIG. 15, withcomparable films without heat treatment shown in FIG. 14. The fuel cellresults are presented in FIG. 13. The results show significantly betterperformance for Example 28B with the casting wheel side of the filmplaced against the catalyzed membrane. As evident from the SEM resultsin FIG. 15, the better results are obtained with the film layer next tothe catalyzed membrane having smaller pores and a denser surface layer.FIG. 16 shows SEM micrographs for UHMWPE films corresponding to Example14 with and without heat treatment.

The embodiments described above are intended to be representative andnot limiting. Additional embodiments of the invention are within theclaims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of forming an electrode backing layerfor an electrochemical MEA comprising the steps of: (a) forming apolymeric film comprising a crystallizable polyolefin polymer matrix,conductive particles and a diluent for said polymer; (b) applyingsurface texture to said polymeric film; and (c) removing said oil beforeor after applying said surface texture.
 2. A method of forming anelectrochemical MEA comprising the step of placing an electrode backinglayer on both sides of a polymeric ion conductive membrane, saidelectrode backing layers each comprising a gas permeable, electricallyconductive porous film prepared according to a method comprising thestep of heating a porous, polmer film comprising a polymer matrix andabout 45 to about 98 percent by weight electrically conductive particlesto a temperature within 20° C. of the melting point of said polymermatrix for sufficient time to decrease the Gurley value of said film byat least about 25 percent and decrease the electrical resistivity ofsaid film by at least about 25 percent while substantially maintainingthe physical integrity and mechanical properties of said film uponcooling; wherein a catalyst layer is disposed between each of said ionconductive membrane and said electrode backing layers.
 3. A method offorming an electrochemical MEA comprising the step of placing anelectrode backing layer on both sides of a polymeric ion conductivemembrane; said electrode backing layers each comprising a gas permeable,electrically conductive porous fibrillated PTFE film and conductiveparticles embedded in said film, wherein a catalyst layer is disposedbetween each of said ion conductive membrane and said electrode backinglayers.